87&- 
H4- 


UC-NRLF 


HE  DANISH  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Including  a  General  Accoun    of  the  Educational 
System  of  Denmark 


By  MARTIN  HEGLAND,  M.A. 

C  aduate  Scholar  and  Foreign  ResearcK  t   Kolar, 
Teachers  College,   1911-1912 


Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Require- 
ments for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  in 
the  Faculty  of  Philosophy,  Columbia  University 


NEW  YORK  CITY 
1916 


EXCHANGE 


THE  DANISH  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Including  a  General  Account  of  the  Educational 
System  of  Denmark 


By  MARTIN  HEGLAND,  M.A. 

Graduate  Scholar  and  Foreign  Research  Scholar, 
Teachers  College.  1911-1912 


Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Require- 
ments for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  in 
the  Faculty  of  Philosophy,  Columbia  University 


US  13c.K.^.   oild,      Bu//.//-.^^,/f/^ 


NEW  YORK  CITY 
1916 


Uft876 
H  4 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Prefatory  note 6 

Paet  I.  The  Educational  System  of  Denmark. 

Chapter        I. — Historical  development 7 

II. — Organization  and  administration  of  education 19 

III. — Elementary  education 29 

IV. — Secondary  education 53 

V. — University  and  vocational  education 64 

Paet  II.  The  Danish  People's  High  School. 

VI. — Origin  of  the  people's  high  schools 73 

VII. — Growth  of  the  people's  high  school 84 

VIII.— The  schools  and  their  life ; 99 

IX, — Aims,  curricula,  and  methods 113 

X. — Influence  and  results 129 

XI. — People's  high  schools  in  other  countries 142 

XII. — Conclusion 154 

Appendix  A. — Statistical  tables 167 

B.— Bibliography 172 

Index 181 

3 


333570 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington^  Septemher  23, 1915. 
Sir:  The  folk  high  schools  of  Denmark  and  other  Scandinavian 
countries  are  so  unique  and  contain  so  much  of  interest  to  all  who  are 
concerned  in  the  preparation  of  young  men  and  women  for  higher 
and  better  living  and  for  more  efficient  citizenship  that,  although 
two  or  three  former  bulletins  of  this  bureau  have  been  devoted  to  a 
description  of  these  schools  and  their  work,  I  recommend  that  the 
manuscript  transmitted  herewith  be  published  as  a  bulletin  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  still  more  com- 
prehensive account  of  the  subject.     Those  who  read  this  and  the 
former  bulletins  referred  to  will  have  a  fairly  complete  account,  not 
only  of  these  schools,  but  also  of  the  whole  system  of  rural  education 
of  which  these  schools  are  an  important  part. 
Respectfully  submitted. 

P.  P.  Claxton, 

C  onmiissioner. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

5 


PREFATORY  NOTE 


For  the  sake  of  reference,  the  following  facts  relating  to  Denmark 
are  stated  here: 

Area. — 16,042  square  miles.  This  is  very  nearly  equal  to  the  com- 
bined areas  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey,  or  to  one-fifth  the  area 
of  Minnesota. 

Population  {1906). — ^2,588,919.  This  is  almost  identically  equal  to 
the  population  of  New  tlersey  (1910)  and  is  about  half  a  million 
greater  than  the  population  of  Minnesota  (1910). 

The  monetary  unit  is  the  krone^  equal  to  about  27  cents  of  Ameri- 
can money.     The  ore  is  one  one-hundredth  part  of  a  krone. 

The  Danish  foot  equals  12.35  inches;  the  Danish  mile  equals  4 
English  miles ;  and  the  Danish  pound  equals  1.1  poimds  avoirdupois. 
6 


THE  DANISH  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOL 


PART  I.  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  DENMARK. 


Chapter  I. 

HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

An  early  culture. — Runic  inscriptions  bear  evidence  of  a  culture  in 
the  Old  Norse  world  extending  as  far  back  as  500  A.  D.^  The  very 
existence  of  these  inscriptions  suggests  practices  of  a  distinctively 
educational  nature — a  supposition  that  is  abundantly  borne  out  by 
the  contents  of  the  folk  songs  and  saga  literature  of  this  early  period. 
From  this  material  it  is  possible  to  gain  a  fairly  definite  idea  of  the 
status  of  education  among  these  people  of  the  north  before  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity.^ 

Educational  practices. — The  child's  early  training  was  received  at 
the  hands  of  his  mother.  Her  supervision  was  mild.  The  child  was 
given  large  freedom  in  his  play  and  activity,  and  very  early  was  left 
to  solve  his  own  problems.  Thus  began  that  training  in  individual 
initiative  which  produced  the  viking  who  boldly  set  forth  upon  the 
seas  in  the  quest  of  new  lands  and  adventures. 

When  the  boy  was  old  enough  to  be  removed  from  the  immediate 
care  of  his  mother,  his  training  was  either  continued  in  the  home  or 
given  over  to  a  foster  father.'  Many  well-to-do  people  chose  the 
latter  course  for  various  reasons.^  If  he  remained  at  home,  the 
many  slaves  and  servants,  hoping  for  favors  from  the  future  master, 
might  spoil  the  child  by  overindulgence.  Furthermore,  the  removal 
of  the  boy  from  immediate  parental  supervision  would  tend  to  de- 
velop individuality  in  thought  and  action.  The  foster  father  was 
chosen  with  great  care,  the  selection  being  made  from  among  such 
wise  men  as  possessed  the  requisite  knowledge  for  a  leader  or  chief- 
tain. These  men  were  found  chiefly  among  the  district  rulers,  who 
were  also  priests.  Serving  in  such  double  capacity,  they  were  in- 
itiated into  the  civil  laws  as  well  as  the  religious  teachings  of  the 

1  Ottosen,  Nordens  Historic,  p.  6. 

"Worm,  Forsog  til  en  Skolehistorie,  p.  345. 

■  Lagerstedt,  Svenska  Uppfostringsvasendets  Historia,  p.  6. 


8  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMARK. 

community.  These  men  were  frequently  also  historians  and  poets.^ 
The  relationship  between  a  foster  father  and  child  was  exceedingly 
intimate  and  loving.  Between  children  fostered  in  the  same  home 
there  was  also  formed  a  close  bond  of  friendship,  which  sometimes 
ripened  into  love,  as  so  beautifully  pictured  by  Tegner,  in  his  poetic 
version  of  Fritjof's  Saga.  Often,  too,  there  was  established  between 
men  fostered  together  the  institution  of  "  foster  brotherhood,"  a 
brotherhood  of  arms.  If  a  child  was  brought  up  in  the  home,  his 
training  was  intrusted  to  some  particular  liberated  slave,  who  might 
frequently  be  a  captive  from  some  foreign  country  and  a  person  of 
considerable  culture.  Such  a  person  would  usually  devote  himself 
heartily  to  the  child  intrusted  to  his  special  care,  a  devotion  which 
was  generally  rewarded  in  kind  by  the  ward. 

Aim  of  Old  Norse  education. — The  aim  of  Old  Norse  education 
for  the  boy  was  manliness,  which  was  conceived  as  physical  and 
intellectual  vigor,  courage,  complete  self-possession  in  the  most  criti- 
cal situation,  large-mindedness,  generosity,  and  above  all  utter  dis- 
regard of  death.^  These  qualities  the  chieftains  sought  to  develop 
by  all  manner  of  strong  incentives,  even  resorting  to  abusive  words 
to  stimulate  the  boy  to  manly  deeds.  The  training  was,  of  course, 
obtained  largely  through  imitation,  seeing  and  doing  the  things  that 
parents  and  elders  did.  In  this  way  they  became  proficient  in  vari- 
ous peaceful  and  warlike  exercises.  The  boys  matured  at  a  very 
young  age,  many  a  chieftain's  son  going  to  war  at  the  age  of  12. 
While  the  education  was  thus  prevailing!}^  moral,  its  method  being 
activity,  and  action  its  culmination,  it  nevertheless  possessed  a  con- 
siderable intellectual  content.  Knowledge  of  the  religion,  laws,  his- 
tory, and  poetical  literature  of  the  people  was  considered  essential 
to  the  equipment  of  a  leader.  Composition  of  impromptu  poetry 
was  a  favorite  diversion  of  chieftains  around  the  festive  board, 
while  the  writing  of  history  and  poetry  was  a  recognized  profession. 
The  transfer  of  this  intellectual  heritage  and  the  training  of  the 
boy  in  manly  qualities  and  deeds  constituted  the  special  office  of  the 
foster  father  or  special  guardian.  Thus  the  education  of  leaders  in 
this  early  period  had  become  a  conscious  process,  and  although  there 
were  no  schools  or  teachers  in  the  modern  professional  sense,  it  may 
be  said  that  there  had  been  developed  a  special  teaching  function. 
The  education  of  the  boy  was  completed  by  military  campaigns  and 
excursions,  by  travel  and  residence  abroad. 

Young  men  of  the  northern  nobility  frequently  spent  much  time  at  court,  at 
home  and  abroad,  in  Scandinavia,  Greece,  Russia,  England,  France,  Scotland, 
and  acquired  thus  a  knowledge  of  the  world,  higher  training,  and  fine  manners, 
as  well  as  honor,  riches,  and  influential  connections." 


1  Hertzberg,  Opdragelsens  og  Skolens  Historic,  p. 
»  Lagerstedt,  op.  cit.,  p.  6. 


14. 


HISTOKICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  9 

The  education  of  girls  seems  to  have  been  less  specialized.  At  an 
early  age  they  engaged  in  the  industries  of  the  home — sewing,  em- 
broidery, spinning,  and  weaving.  They  participated  in  various 
amusements  and  mingled  freely  with  the  people  at  festivals  and  pub- 
lic meetings.  Their  intellectual  training  was  not  entirely  neglected, 
however,  for  women  busied  themselves  also  with  poetry.  But  chiefly 
by  work,  play,  and  free  activity  were  trained  the  mothers  of  a 
sturdy  race. 

The  Middle  Ages. — With  the  introduction  of  Christianity  schools 
were  immediately  established.  The  first  Christian  school  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  erected  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century 
by  the  Apostle  of  the  North,  St.  Ansgar,  "  for  12  young  children 
whom  he,  together  with  his  assistants,  instructed  in  Christian  learn- 
ing."^ Throughout  Europe  during  this  period  there  were  three 
chief  types  of  schools — monastic,  cathedral,  and  burgher  schools. 
Monastic  schools  were  kept  by  the  monks  and  consisted  of  two  divi- 
sions, an  interior  school  for  novices  who  were  to  become  monks  and 
an  exterior  department  for  the  boys  of  the  community  who  desired 
an  education  chiefly  for  secular  purposes.  The  studies  pursued  were 
religion,  reading,  writing,  singing,  and  the  subjects  of  the  trivium 
and  quadrivium.  For  the  novices  there  was,  in  addition,  instruction 
in  the  rules  of  the  order  and  some  of  the  principles  of  canonical 
law.  Cathedral  schools  were  established  in  connection  with  the 
cathedral  chapters  and  were  training  schools  chiefly  for  the  priest- 
hood. 

The  schools  were  in  charge  of  a  master,  scholasticus^  and  gave 
instruction  in  the  most  necessary  subjects,  such  as  reading — especially 
the  Bible — writing,  singing,  Latin,  the  church  fathers,  canonical  law, 
and  the  duties  of  the  priestly  office.  These  schools,  though  degen- 
erating to  low  standards  in  the  later  Middle  Ages,  were  attended 
by  large  numbers  of  students,  the  school  at  Roskilde  being  reported 
to  have  had  900  students  and  the  one  at  Ribe  700.^  Neither  of  the 
above  types  of  schools  met  the  demands  of  the  citizen  classes,  who 
felt  a  growing  need  of  education  for  the  performance  of  their  various 
pursuits.  The  citizens  therefore  began  to  establish  schools  on  their 
own  account.  In  addition  to  religion,  instruction  was  given  in  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  a  little  history,  geography,  and  sometimes 
also  German.  Such  schools  under  various  names — burgher,  Danish, 
German,  or  writing  schools — seem  to  have  been  established  before  the 
Reformation  in  all  leading  commercial  towns.^ 

Elementary  education  was  least  well  provided  for.  There  were 
no  common  schools,  in  the  modern  sense.    Provision  was  made,  how- 

1  Worm,  op.  clt.,  p.  346. 

»Idem,   p.  362. 

•  Ottosen,  Vor  Folkeskoles  Oprindelse  eg  Udvikling,  p.  8. 


10  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMARK. 

ever,  for  instruction  by  the  parish  priest  in  the  elements  of  the 
Christian  religion.  This  consisted  of  memorizing  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
the  Apostolic  Creed,  Ave  Maria,  and,  in  the  latter  Middle  Ages,  per- 
haps the  ten  commandments.  Children  were  to  commit  these  ele- 
ments to  memory  between  their  seventh  and  fourteenth  years,  after 
which  they  were  subject  to  fines  if  they  did  not  know  them  when 
tested  at  confession. 

Facilities  for  university  education  were  provided  in  the  north  when 
the  University  of  Upsala,  in  Sweden,  was  founded  in  1477  and  that 
of  Copenhagen  in  1478.  Previously,  and  for  a  long  time  afterwards, 
students  who  desired  advanced  training  went  abroad,  the  Universities 
of  Paris,  Bologna,  Orleans,  Oxford,  Lowen,  and  Rostock  drawing 
the  largest  numbers. 

Educational  plan  of  Reformation. — The  Reformation  was  intro- 
duced into  Denmark  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1536,  and  a  church 
ordinance  of  1539,  formulated  by  Bugenhagen,  regulated  ecclesias- 
tical and  educational  affairs.  The  King  became  head  of  the  church, 
and  under  him  were  ordained  seven  superintendents,  who  were, 
however,  popularly  called  bishops.  The  monasteries  were  dissolved 
and  their  properties  and  incomes  were  devoted  to  the  support  of 
Latin  schools  and  the  university.  The  cathedral  schools  were  trans- 
formed into  Latin  schools  by  the  guidance  of  Melanchthon's  school 
plan  for  Saxony.  These  Latin  schools  continued  to  be  training  schools 
for  the  ministry  until  1629,  when  a  theological  examination  requiring 
university  study  was  introduced  for  candidates  for  the  ministry 
and  for  teachers  in  the  higher  classes  of  the  Latin  schools.  Further- 
more, the  above-mentioned  church  ordinance  required  that  there 
should  be  one  Latin  school  in  every  provincial  city.  The  old  mon- 
astery schools  were  partly  dissolved  and  partly  transformed  into 
Latin  schools  of  the  new  type.  Later,  schools  were  founded  by  the 
King.  Their  function  was  to  equip  for  secular  as  well  as  for 
clerical  life. 

Ultimately  there  developed  two  fairly  definite  types  of  "  learned  " 
or  Latin  schools,  higher  schools  in  the  larger  cities  and  lower  schools 
in  the  smaller  towns.  These  latter  became  essentially  preparatory 
to  the  former.  The  higher  schools  became  training  institutions  for 
the  office-holding  class,  which  included,  of  course,  the  ministry.  The 
administration  of  a  higher  school  was  in  the  hands  of  a  head  master 
or  rector.  He  was  assisted  by  four  or  five  "  hearers,"  and  the  schools 
were  divided  into  classes,  ranging  in  number  from  four  to  seven. 
Needy  students  in  the  upper  class  were  given  the  office  of  parish 
clerks  in  the  surrounding  parishes  and  received  the  income  attached 
to  those  offices.  The  curriculum  of  these  schools  consisted  of  religion 
and  Latin.     Students  in  the  upper  class  who  were  able  to  read  and 


HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT.  11 

write  Latin  well  were  permitted  to  study  a  little  Greek,  but  not  to 
the  neglect  of  Latin.  The  mother  tongue  was  not  only  neglected, 
but  students  were  severely  punished  if  they  by  chance  spoke  Danish. 
Contemporaries  complain  of  the  fruitlessness  of  the  instruction  and 
of  the  inhuman  discipline  maintained. 

The  lower  Latin  schools  in  the  smaller  towns  had  only  three  or 
four  classes  and  one  or  two  teachers  besides  the  head  master.  In 
addition  to  their  chief  function  of  preparing  for  the  higher  schools, 
they  served  as  a  sort  of  burgher  school.  To  be  sure  the  chief  element 
in  the  curriculum  was  Latin,  but  at  that  time  knowledge  of  this 
language  was  necessary  for  any  person  who  wished  to  be  deemed 
cultured.  The  other  subjects  of  instruction  were  religion,  writing, 
and  singing. 

Both  these  types  of  schools  were  placed  under  the  supervision  of 
the  clergy,  and  their  development  was  much  emphasized.  For  their 
benefit  the  existing  Danish,  German,  or  citizen  schools  were  to  be 
discontinued,  so  that  there  would  be  only  one  school  in  each  city. 
While  the  church  ordinance  of  1539  abolished  the  above-mentioned 
private  schools,  it  provided  that  the  Government  should  erect  "  writ- 
ing schools  for  boys  and  girls  and  others  who  are  not  capable  of 
learning  Latin."  The  rationale  of  abolishing  existing  schools  and 
immediately  erecting  new  ones  of  about  the  same  function  was  evi- 
dently to  establish  a  system  of  public  rather  than  private  schools,  for 
the  new  schools  were  to  be  erected  by  the  Government.  The  Govern- 
ment must  have  taken  the  matter  lightly,  however,  for  no  public 
schools,  other  than  Latin  schools,  were  established  for  a  long  time 
to  come.^ 

The  ordinance  of  1539  makes  no  mention  of  rural  schools.  This 
was  evidently  not  to  be  thought  of.  That  every  father  should  be  a 
teacher  of  his  own  household,  however,  was  an  idea  much  encouraged. 
In  addition  to  such  home  instruction,  the  ordinance  provided  that 
"  The  parish  clerk  shall  instruct  the  young  peasants  in  the  catechism 
once  a  week  at  such  time  and  place  as  the  parish  pastor  may  pre- 
scribe." 2  In  1555  a  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  college  of  bishops 
to  the  following  effect: 

Every  parish  clerk  in  a  rural  town  shall,  in  the  days  of  the  three  great 
church  festivals,  repair  to  other  rural  towns,'  and  there  in  a  citizen's  house 
call  together  the  young  people,  instruct  and  hear  them  in  the  catechism,  suit- 
ably encourage  them,  sing  a  hymn  with  them,  and  let  them  afterwards  play 
decorously  in  the  street.* 

The  obligation  was  also  placed  upon  the  pastors,  in  addition  to 
the  sermon  proper,  "  each  Sunday  and  in  each  church  to  explain  a 

1  Ottosen,  op.  cit.,  p.  11. 
«  Quoted  by  Ottosen,  ibid.,  p.  12. 
»  Where  there  was  no  church. 
*  Quoted  by  Ottosen,  ibid.,  p.  13. 


12  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM    OF   DENMARK. 

portion  of  the  Christian  elements — for  example,  a  commandment, 
an  article  of  faith,  a  prayer,  etc. — and  continue  this  constantly,  so 
that  when  they  had  reached  the  end  of  the  catechism  they  should 
begin  again  from  the  beginning."  ^  Such  was  the  educational  plan 
of  the  Reformation  in  Denmark. 

Development  of  elementary  education. — The  period  immediately 
following  the  Reformation  was  marked  by  a  live  interest  in  educa- 
tion, which  manifested  itself  especially  in  the  instruction  in  the 
homes.  When  the  language  of  the  religious  services  was  changed 
from  Latin  to  Danish,  the  desire  to  read  instead  of  merely  commit- 
ting to  memory  something  read  for  them  stimulated  instruction  in 
reading.  Soon  there  were  whole  communities,  especially  in  Jutland, 
where  nearly  every  person  could  read.  Whether  this  work  of  instruc- 
tion was  at  first  'entirely  a  family  affair  or  a  cooperative  effort  of 
several  families  involving  the  hiring  of  a  teacher  is  not  clear.  It 
does  appear,  however,  that  by  the  time  of  Christian  IV  (1588-1648) 
schools  had  been  established  by  such  private  initiative,  and  were 
pointed  to  by  the  King  as  examples  worthy  of  emulation  by  other 
communities.^  Efforts  at  popular  enlightenment  continued  to  be 
made  also  by  the  kings  and  clergy.  King  Christian  IV  labored  for 
a  more  thorough  training  of  ministers  and  the  appointment  of  capa- 
ble parish  clerks.  He  regarded  the  chief  function  of  these  latter 
officials  to  be  the  instruction  of  the  young,  and  this  duty  he  urged 
uponthem  conscientiously  to  perform.  A  significant  ruling  of  1645  pre- 
scribed that  no  young  man  or  woman  could  become  betrothed  or  mar- 
ried before  he  or  she  was  found  well  versed  in  the  Christian  elements.^ 
But  great  obstacles  were  encountered.  There  was  such  a  lack  of 
pastors  that  it  was  necessary  to  combine  many  parishes  into  one 
charge,  the  manifold  duties  of  which  made  it  practically  impossible 
for  pastors  to  do  much  in  the  way  of  instructing  the  young.  Further, 
many  of  them  lacked  the  necessary  qualifications  for  the  work. 

The  same  discrepancies  existed  in  the  case  of  parish  clerks.  The 
income  and  honors  attached  to  these  latter  offices  were  so  small  as  to 
fail  to  attract  capable  men.  The  result  was  that  the  offices  were 
generally  filled  by  men  who  already  held  other  positions,  by  students 
in  the  upper  class  of  the  Latin  schools,  or  by  men  who  had  failed 
in  their  examinations.  It  is  small  wonder  that  complaints  of  their 
inefficiency  and  laziness  were  general  and  bitter.  Added  to  these 
difficulties  was  the  unwillingness  of  many  parents  to  have  their  chil- 
dren instructed.  They  were  threatened  with  increasingly  severe 
punishments  if  they  failed  to  send  their  children  for  instruction. 
This  fact  indicates  perhaps  a  falling  off  of  interest  on  the  part  of 

i-Quoted  by  Ottosen,  Ibid.,  p.  13. 
»  Ottosen,  op.  cit.,  p.  15. 
*  Hertzberg,  op.  cit.,  p.  58. 


HISTORICAL   DEVELOPMENT.  18 

the  people  fully  as  much  as  a  heightening  of  the  ideals  of  bishop  and 
pastor.  When  the  religious  life,  which  had  been  stirred  by  the 
Reformation,  fell  back  into  formalism,  the  desire  for  reading  the 
Bible  also  waned,  and  with  it  interest  in  education.  Some  educa- 
tional advance  was  made  by  the  Danish  law  of  Christian  V  (1683). 
This  law  prescribes  that  only  such  students  as  were  certificated  by  the 
bishops  should  be  appointed  parish  clerks,  and  they  must  not  hold 
any  other  office.  Thus  was  legally  abolished  also  the  practice  of  fill- 
ing the  clerks'  offices  with  students  in  the  Latin  schools.  This  prac- 
tice, which  had  grown  hateful  to  the  people,  continued,  however,  for 
many  years  in  certain  localities.  It  was  further  provided  by  law 
that  the  parish  clerks  should  give  instruction  in  the  catechism  on  one 
week  day  in  addition  to  Sunday.  For  this  purpose  the  clerks  kept 
ambulatory  school  in  homes  centrally  located  at  various  points  in  the 
parishes. 

Influence  of  pietism. — The  pietistic  movement,  furthered  by 
Francke  and  Spener  in  Germany,  exerted  a  tremendous  influence 
upon  the  Danes.  So  lifeless  and  formal  had  religious  life  become 
that  this  movement  from  the  south  was  felt  as  a  refreshing  breeze. 
Especially  the  clergy  were  stirred,  and  in  order  that  the  young  might 
be  instructed  in  vital  Christianity,  they  stimulated  a  marked  revival 
of  interest  in  education.  In  Copenhagen  two  pastors,  Thestrup  and 
Worm,  were  so  active  in  their  efforts  for  enlightenment  that  they  suc- 
ceeded in  having  free  schools  established  for  the  poor  in  their  par- 
ishes in  the  first  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Subsequently, 
similar  schools  were  established  in  the  other  three  parishes  of  the 
city.  The  schools  were  supported  by  free-will  contributions.  In- 
struction was  given  in  religion,  Danish,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 
The  girls  received  instruction  also  in  sewing  and  spinning.  These 
schools  formed  the  foundation  for  the  present  public-school  system 
of  Copenhagen.  Also  other  cities  established  free  schools  for  the 
poor  at  this  time.^ 

The  greatest  contribution  to  education  during  this  period,  how- 
ever, was  made  directly  by  King  Frederick  TV  (1699-1730) .  Within 
six  years'  time  he  built  240  substantial  schools,  many  of  which  still 
stand.  He  accompanied  his  building  ventures  with  specific  instruc- 
tions regarding  the  conduct  of  the  schools.  Teachers  were  to  be 
nominated  and  certificated  by  the  local  pastors  and  appointed  by  the 
county  chairman.  The  schools,  which  were  for  both  boys  and  girls, 
whether  rich  or  poor,  were  to  be  kept  six  days  in  the  week,  and 
parents  punished  if  they  did  not  send  their  children.  Instruction  in 
the  most  elementary  subjects  was  free,  but  tuition  might  be  charged 

1  Ottosen,  op.  cit.,  p.  27. 


14  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMARK. 

for  instruction  in  special  or  advanced  subjects.  In  general  the 
teachers'  cash  salaries  were  paid  by  the  King,  and  the  salaries  in  kind 
by  the  local  communities,  a  certain  levy  being  made  on  each  unit 
of  land. 

Frederick  IV  died  before  the  fruits  of  his  efforts  were  evident,  but 
his  work  was  continued  with  great  zeal  by  his  son  and  successor, 
Christian  VI  (1730-1746).  He  introduced,  in  1736,  the  institution 
of  confirmation  for  the  young  at  the  age  of  14  or  15.  Before  they 
could  be  confirmed,  however,  they  must  be  instructed  in  a  consider- 
able body  of  knowledge.  The  plan  met  with  much  opposition  from 
the  people.  They  themselves  had  had  no  such  extended  instruction, 
and  they  thought  it  a  hardship  that  it  should  be  required  of  their 
children.  The  King  and  most  of  the  clergy  remained  firm,  however, 
and  as  the  instruction  the  pastor  could  give  in  the  limited  time  at 
his  disposal  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  standard  established,  there 
came  about  a  feeling  of  a  real  need  for  schools.  This  was  the  very 
thing  the  King  desired,  for  thus  the  ground  was  prepared  for  his 
plan  of  a  common-school  system  for  the  entire  country. 

E stahlishment  of  a  State  system. — The  240  schools  erected  by 
Frederick  IV  were  built  upon  the  lands  devoted  to  the  support  of  the 
army  and  directly  subject  to  the  Crown.  His  educational  work  was 
therefore  in  a  sense  of  an  individual  nature.  His  son.  Christian  VI, 
however,  extended  the  idea  and  conceived  a  national  system  of  edu- 
cation. To  prepare  for  the  establishment  of  such  a  system  a  commis- 
sion was  appointed  to  learn  the  status  of  education  in  the  country 
and  to  submit  plans.  On  the  basis  of  its  report  there  was  enacted 
the  "  Ordinance  of  1739,  concerning  schools  in  rural  districts,"  which 
remained  practically  unchanged  until  1814.  This  law  laid  down  the 
following  principles,  which  have  ever  since  been  followed  in  Danish 
education :  (1)  Every  parish  is  in  duty  bound  to  establish  and  main- 
tain schools.  (2)  Children  are  in  duty  bound  to  receive  instruc- 
tion during  a  certain  period  of  their  lives.  If  this  is  not  otherwise 
provided  for,  they  are  to  be  instructed  in  the  public  schools.  (3) 
The  school  is  confessional,  i.  e.,  an  Evangelical  Lutheran  parish 
school. 

The  instruction  in  Christianity,  which  had  previously  been  a 
function  of  the  church  and  given  by  its  officers,  was  now  delegated 
to  a  separate  institution,  the  school,  which,  therefore,  received  its 
own  professional  staff.  Schools  were  to  be  of  two  kinds — stationary 
where  the  population  was  sufficiently  dense,  and  ambulatory  in  the 
more  sparsely  populated  areas.  The  parish  clerks  were'  to  keep 
school,  but  as  their  number  was  far  too  limited,  there  were  to  be 
appointed  in  addition  as  many  persons  to  keep  school  as  the  bishops 


HISTOEICAL   DEVELOPMENT.  15 

deemed  necessary.  All  children  between  the  ages  of  7  and  10  or  12 
were  to  attend  school  every  day  that  school  was  kept  in  the  com- 
munity, and  neglect  of  parents  in  sending  children  to  school  could 
be  punished  even  by  a  prison  sentence.  Instruction  embraced  religion 
and  reading  for  all.  Writing  and  arithmetic  were  taught  to  such  as 
paid  a  special  fee.  It  soon  appeared,  liowever,  that  the  law  was  far 
ahead  of  its  time.  The  chief  difficulties  encountered  in  putting  it  into 
practice  were  the  incapacity  and  unwillingness,  or  both,  of  the 
public  to  support  the  schools  and  the  lack  of  qualified  teachers. 
After  the  death  of  Christian  VI  the  attitude  of  the  Central  Gov- 
ernment toward  education  became  less  firm,  and  the  provisions  of 
the  law  were  not  carried  out  in  full.  Christian  VI  had  been  suc- 
cessful, however,  in  establishing  the  principle  that  education  is  a 
function  not  only  of  the  home  and  church,  but  also  of  the  State. 
On  this  foundation  the  Government  continued  to  build.^ 

Inftuence  of  EnlightenTnent  and  naturalism. — The  influence  of 
eighteenth  century  educational  thought  took  definite  form  in  Den- 
mark in  the  erection  of  training  schools  where  teachers  might  be 
made  acquainted  with  the  new  ideas  of  enlightenment  and  naturalism, 
and  thus  be  equipped  to  train  up  "  a  new,  better,  and  happier  genera- 
tion "  The  first  teachers'  training  school  within  the  then-existing 
bounds  of  Denmark  was  established  in  1781,  at  Kiel.  In  1789  there 
was  appointed  by  Christian  VII  the  "  Great  School  Commmission," 
to  prepare  a  new  plan  for  the  school  system  of  the  country.  The 
first  problem  to  which  the  commission  devoted  itself  was  the  train- 
ing of  teachers,  and  in  1791  there  was  established  under  its  super- 
vision the  Blaagaard  Normal  School  in  Copenhagen.  The  influence 
of  the  Enlightenment  is  plainly  evident  in  the  curriculum  of  Blaa- 
gaard.   The  instruction  embraced — 

the  theoretical  and  practical  teachings  of  the  Christian  religion,  with  proofs 
from  the  Scriptures  and  reason,  Bible  study,  catechization,  history,  geography, 
mother  tongue,  nature  study,  physics,  logic,  laws  and  ordinances,  writing, 
arithmetic,  geometry,  German,  music.  Later  were  added  anthropology,  agri- 
culture, horticulture,  household  sciences,  industries  and  gymnastics.* 

This  formidable  program  was  the  model  on  which  other  schools 
were  built,  but  their  histories  were  comparatively  brief.  The  spirit 
of  the  Enlightenment,  however,  operated  powerfully  in  the  work  of 
the  Great  Commission,  whose  plan,  after  having  been  tried  out  in 
practice  and  modified  by  criticism,  was  enacted  into  law  in  1814. 
This  law  made  possible  the  enforcement  of  compulsory  education, 
placed  the  burden  of  support  upon  the  local  communities,  fixed  the 
salaries  of  teachers,  and  provided  for  a  small  pension.  The  subjects 
of  instruction  were  to  be  religion,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  sing- 

1  Based  chiefly  on  Hertzberg,  op.  cit.,  p.  73flf. 

2  Quoted  by  Hertzberg,  op.  cit.,  p.  108. 

3334°— 15 2 


16  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM    OF   DENMAEK. 

ing,  gymnastics  for  the  boys,  and,  when  possible,  a  little  history  and 
geography. 

The  poor  economic  and  social  conditions  of  Denmark  during  the 
first  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  diminution  of  interest  in 
enlightenment  made  the  enforcement  of  the  law  very  difficult.  Con- 
sequently, salaries  and  equipment  became  meager  and  the  instruction 
very  inferior.  The  systems  of  Lancaster  and  Bell  were  seized  upon 
in  many  places  as  a  means  of  general  education  at  a  low  cost  and 
as  a  result  the  instruction  became  very  formal  and  mechanical. 

Recent  reforms. — After  1830  educational  interest  took  an  upward 
trend.  The  psychological  tendency  was  making  itself  felt.  Teachers 
formed  associations,  issued  educational  journals,  and  held  meetings 
for  the  discussion  of  educational  problems;  and  progress  was  made 
in  many  directions.  A  distinctly  Danish  contribution  to  educational 
thought  and  practice  was  made  at  this  time  by  Bishop  Grundtvig 
and  somewhat  later  by  Kristen  Kold.  Both  of  these  men  are  of 
special  interest  in  connection  with  the  history  of  people's  high 
schools,  but  their  agitation  for  a  more  free  and  spiritual  instruction 
also  exerted  a  tremendous  influence  on  elementary  education. 

The  granting  of  general  suffrage  by  the  Danish  free  constitution  in 
1848  and  the  increasing  prosperity  of  the  country  further  stimulated 
interest  in  education,  but  progress  was  delayed  for  a  time  by  a  sharp 
conflict  in  Parliament  over  the  question  of  centralization.^  The  re- 
sults of  reform  and  discussion  were  embodied  in  the  school  law  of 
1856,  which,  among  other  things,  improved  salaries,  gave  to  local 
communities  the  right  to  nominate  teachers,  and  required  the  State 
to  assume  a  small  part  of  school  expenses. 

Legally  and  administratively  reforms  continued  to  be  made  in  the 
supply,  training,  certification,  and  salaries  of  teachers,  extension  of 
the  curriculum,  and  methods  of  instruction.  In  the  sixties  local 
communities  were  given  more  power  in  regard  to  their  school  affairs 
and  the  interest  of  the  people  increased.  Serious  defects,  especially 
in  the  matter  of  low  salaries,  were  existent,  however,  and  in  response 
to  the  growing  appreciation  of  modern  educational  needs  a  series  of 
laws  in  1899,  1903,  and  1904  placed  elementary  education  on  its  pres- 
ent footing,  the  exposition  of  which  will  be  undertaken  in  another 
chapter. 

Secondary  education  since  the  Reformation. — Having  thus  traced 
briefly  the  development  of  elementary  education  from  the  Reforma- 
tion up  to  the  present  time,  it  is  in  order  to  glance  at  the  history  of 
secondary  schools  which  took  its  course  more  or  less  independently  of 
elementary  education  during  this  period.  The  influence  of  Comenius 
and  realism  were  but  slightly  felt  in  Denmark  and  the  Latin  schools 

1  Larsen,  Folkeskolen  in  Danmarks  Skolevaesen,  p.  31. 


HISTORICAL   DEVELOPMENT.  17 

continued  supreme  in  the  field  of  secondary  education.  The  higher 
Latin  schools  gradually  became  preparatory  to  university  study,  in- 
stead of  training  directly  for  the  ministry.  In  smaller  towns  where 
the  Latin  schools  were  but  poorly  attended,  efforts  were  made  to  sub- 
stitute Danish  schools  where  children  might  be  instructed  in  the 
Christian  elements,  arithmetic,  writing,  bookkeeping,  and  seaman- 
ship, but  the  efforts  were  without  avail.  Nor  did  the  eighteenth 
century  witness  any  essential  changes  in  secondary  schools.  The 
ordinance  of  1739  prescribed  that  the  mother  tongue  should  be  given 
more  attention  and  textbooks  should  be  written  in  Danish,  but  the 
law  remained  virtually  a  dead  letter.  A  number  of  the  smaller 
Latin  schools  were,  however,  transformed  into  Danish  schools. 

It  was  noU before  the  first  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
any  essential  reform  in  secondary  education  took  place.  This  con- 
sisted in  a  betterment  of  finances,  buildings,  and  salaries.  The  mother 
tongue  and  modern  languages — French  and  German — together  with 
some  science,  were  given  a  place  in  the  curriculum.  The  old  sub- 
jects, however,  maintained  their  claims  to  a  position  of  the  first  rank, 
and  as  teachers  were  lacking  in  ability  to  handle  the  new  subjects, 
difficulties  were  at  once  encountered.  The  first  half  of  the  century 
is  thus  marked  by  a  struggle  between  the  old  and  the  new.  There 
were  complaints  of  overcrowded  curricula,  and  efforts  at  remedies 
were  made,  the  development  moving  along  the  same  lines  as  in  Ger- 
many. Gradually,  however,  more  independence  in  reforms  became 
evident.^  By  1871  the  Latin  school  had  been  divided  into  two  lines, 
the  linguistic-historical  and  the  mathematical-scientific,  both  pre- 
paring for  the  university.  By  1881  there  had  been  worked  out  a  Real 
school  of  four  years,  preparing  for  practical  life,  with  a  leaving  ex- 
amination at  the  age  of  15  or  16.  Latin  was  still  considered  essential 
for  anyone  contemplating  university  study,  and  four  years  of  it  were 
required  even  in  the  mathematical-scientific  course  of  the  Latin 
school.  The  Real  school,  with  four  years,  continued  practically  un- 
changed until  replaced  by  the  new  system  introduced  by  the  law  of 
1903.  The  new  system  recognizes  the  growing  appreciation  of  the 
educational  value  of  modern  languages  and  literatures  by  giving 
them  a  large  place  in  the  curriculum. 

Another  large  element  in  the  reform  of  1903  was  the  desire  for  a 
unified  school  system  embracing  a  continuous  course  of  instruction 
from  the  primary  grade  to  the  university.  Previously  elementary 
and  secondary  education  were  distinct  and  parallel  from  the  bottom 
up.  A  child  began  his  career  in  the  one  or  the  other,  the  choice 
usually  depending  upon  the  social  position  of  his  parents.    The  new 

*  Linderstrom-Lang,  Drenge-og  Faellesskoler  in  Danmarks  Skolevaesen,  p.  7. 


18  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMAKK. 

system  provides  for  the  education  of  all  children  together  during  the 
first  five  years  of  school  life,  regardless  of  the  social  position  of  the 
parents  or  the  future  career  of  the  child.  This  is  accomplished  by 
superimposing  on  the  fifth  year  of  the  elementary  school  a  system  of 
secondary  education  which  provides  a  four-year  middle  school,  fol- 
lowed by  a  Real  course  of  one  year  or  a  Gymnasium  course  of  three 
years. 

Secondary  education  of  girls. — The  record  of  higher  education  for 
girls  does  not  go  back  more  than  150  years  in  Denmark,  and  during 
the  eighteenth  century  such  schools  are  known  only  by  the  criticism 
directed  against  them.^  The  Enlightenment,  however,  included  also 
women  in  its  program,  and  in  1787  was  issued  by  Emmanuel  Balling 
a  "  Plan  for  a  Real  School  for  Our  Daughters."  This  plan  indicates 
a  high  ideal  of  womanhood,  and  proposes  an  extensive  educational 
program  for  girls.  A  few  excellent  schools  were  established,  but 
most  of  them  were  short  lived.  The  conditions  of  the  early  nine- 
teenth century  in  Denmark  were  not  conducive  to  large  or  persistent 
effort  in  behalf  of  women's  education. 

Gradually,  however,  as  the  new  ideas  of  women's  capacities  and 
work  gained  ground,  a  persistent  demand  for  suitable  educational 
facilities  for  girls  made  itself  felt.  The  person  who  did  most  to 
advance  the  cause  of  girls'  higher  education  in  Denmark  was  Miss 
N.  Zahle,  who,  as  the  head  of  a  large  renowned  girls'  school  in  Copen- 
hagen, is  said  to  have  created  the  modern  girls'  school.  She  was  the 
first  to  prepare  girls  for  the  teacher's,  examination  when  they  were 
admitted  to  it  in  1860,  for  the  preliminary  Real  examination,  which 
girls  were  permitted  to  take  for  the  first  time  in  1882,  and  finally  was 
the  first  to  prepare  girls  for  the  university,  when  she  felt  that  the 
time  was  ripe  for  such  a  step.  A  large  number  of  excellent  private 
girls'  schools  were  built  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  centur}^, 
and  the  quality  of  girls'  higher  education  came  to  be  regarded  as 
being  on  a  par  with  that  for  men.  By  the  law  of  1903  coeducation 
was  introduced  into  the  State  schools  and  has  become  very  general 
also  in  the  communal  secondary  schools  which  have  recently  sprung 
up  in  the  cities  and  towns.  Girls  and  boys  are  thus  given  equal  op- 
portunities for  secondary  education,  and  the  number  of  women  en- 
tering the  university  is  steadily  increasing. 

During  the  last  two  decades  there  has  been  manifest  in  Denmark 
a  wonderful  educational  activity.  Old  forms  and  institutions  have 
been  subjected  to  criticisms  and  analysis,  reforms  have  been  under- 
taken to  perfect  the  instruments  in  use,  curricula  have  been  enriched 
and  modernized,  the  aids  to  instruction  have  been  multiplied,  supple- 
mentary types  of  education  have  been  introduced,  a  variety  of  voca- 

1  Lang,  Den  hoiere  Pigeskole  in  Danmarks  SUolevaesen,  p.  19. 


ORGANIZATION   AND  ADMINISTRATION   OF   EDUCATION.  19 

tional  schools  has  come  into  being  to  meet  the  new  conditions,  teach- 
ers' associations  have  been  active  in  spreading  professional  literature 
and  stimulating  educational  thought,  and  school  people  in  general 
have  displayed  an  eager  desire  to  acquire  and  test  the  best  educa- 
tional ideas,  whether  domestic  or  foreign. 


Chapter  II. 

ORGANIZATION   AND   ADMINISTRATION    OF   EDU- 
CATION. 

The  system — Terms  de-fined. — Primary,  secondary,  and  university 
education  in  Denmark  is  now  organized  into  a  State  system,  with 
continuity  from  the  bottom  up.  The  figure  given  on  page  21  may 
serve  to  make  the  system  clear  to  the  reader  and  help  to  define 
the  three  degrees  of  education  as  they  apply  to  Denmark.  As  the 
figure  indicates,  the  system  is  built  upon  a  substructure  of  elementary 
education.  Theoretically,  at  least,  all  children  receive  the  same  edu- 
cation during  the  first  five  years  of  their  school  life.  Then  occurs  a 
parting  of  the  ways.  Those  children  who  are  to  receive  secondary 
education  enter  at  this  point  into  the  middle  school,  while  those 
whose  life  career  does  not  embrace  secondary  education  continue  for 
two  or  three  years  in  the  elementary  school,  usually  until  confirma- 
tion, at  14  or  15  years  of  age.  The  term  elementary  education  is 
therefore  used  in  this  study  to  cover  the  instruction  given  to  all 
children  during  the  first  five  years  of  school  life  and  the  further  cul- 
tural instruction  given  to  those  children  who  do  not  enter  the  sec- 
ondary schools.    The  term  will  thus  include  also  continuation  schools. 

Secondary  education,  as  stated,  begins  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  year 
of  school  work,  normally  when  the  child  is  11  years  of  age.  It  em- 
braces first  the  middle  school  of  four  years,  ages  11  to  15.  Many 
children  go  no  further.  A  continuation  may  be  made,  however,  in 
the  one-year  Real  course  or  in  the  three-year  Gymnasium  which 
offers  three  courses:  Classical,  modern  language,  and  mathematical- 
scientific.  The  term  secondary  education  thus  embraces  instruction 
given 'in  these  three  types  of  schools,  middle  school.  Real  course,  and 
Gymnasium.  The  people's  high  schools,  which  constitute  the  special 
subject  of  this  study,  are  somewhat  difficult  to  classify.  They  are  not 
a  part  of  the  formal  organization  of  secondary  education,  but  in 
their  cultural  purpose  and  in  the  content  of  their  curricula  they 
classify  more  properly  under  secondary  than  under  any  of  the  other 
degrees  of  education. 

The  Gymnasium  prepares  for  the  university,  which  is  a  profes- 
sional school.    To  be  sure,  the  first  year  in  the  university  is  devoted 


20  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMARK. 

to  an  introductory  study  of  psychology  and  the  history  of  philosophy, 
but  thereafter  the  student  pursues  studies  under  the  faculties  of 
theology,  law,  medicine,  philosophy,  or  science,  with  a  view  to  his 
vocational  equipment. 

Administration — The  ministry, — As  education  in  Denmark  is  or- 
ganized into  a  State  system,  it  is  also  administered  as  such.  Mat- 
ters of  fundamental  importance  constitute  subjects  for  legislation 
by  Parliament.  Matters  of  lesser  range,  though  still  weighty,  may 
be  covered  by  royal  resolution.  The  King  also  participates  to  a  small 
extent  in  the  administration  of  the  schools,  notably  by  appointing 
head  teachers  and  principals  on  the  recommendation  of  the  ministry. 
The  immediate  administration  of  educational  affairs,  however,  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  ministry  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  public  instruc- 
tion. Denmark  has  a  form  of  State  church  (Folkekirke) — the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran — the  administration  of  which  is  combined  with  that 
of  education  under  one  head,  as  the  title  of  the  ministry  indicates. 
The  minister  is  appointed  by  the  King  and  has  a  seat  in  the  cabinet, 
together  with  the  eight  other  ministers. 

Educationally,  it  is  the  function  of  the  ministry  to  issue  adminis- 
trative directions  of  a  general  nature  pertaining  to  education,  such 
as  announcements,  circulars,  regulations,  and  instructions,  provided, 
however,  that  the  matter  in  question  is  not  a  subject  for  royal  reso- 
lution.^ The  ministry  also  acts  as  a  court  of  last  resort  in  all  the 
more  important  matters  pertaining  to  education,  and,  in  general, 
exercises  supervision  over  the  organization  and  state  of  the  instruc- 
tion in  all  the  public  schools  in  the  country,  both  elementary  and 
advanced. 

Division  of  work. — The  educational  work  of  the  ministry  is  divided 
between  two  departments,  each  with  its  department  chief  and  assist- 
ants. Under  the  first  of  these  departments  classify  matters  pertain- 
ing to  elementary  education,  normal  schools.  State  teachers'  college, 
people's  high  schools,  schools  of  domestic  science,  school  libraries, 
stipends  for  foreign  study,  Danish  school  museum,  orphan  homes, 
and  schools  for  defectives.  The  other  department  has  to  do  chiefly 
with  secondary  and  higher  schools,  the  university,  polytechnical  in- 
stitute, schools  of  pharmacy  and  dentistry,  the  Royal  Archives,  Royal 
Library,  Royal  Theater,  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  scientific  and 
fine  arts  collections,  grants  to  science  and  arts,  and  stipends  to  stu- 
dents at  the  university  and  abroad.^ 

Advisers  and  inspectors. — In  the  administration  of  educational 
affairs  the  ministry  is  further  assisted  by  several  permanent  advisers 

1  For  the  material  in  this  and  the  following  chapter  the  author  has  drawn  freely  upon 
the  work  by  Henrik  Lehmann,  Haandbog  i  Lovgivningen  om  den  Danske  Folkeskole.  It 
is  an  excellent  compilation  of  legal  and  administrative  measures  relating  to  elementary 
education  In  Denmark  and  has  proved  a  source  book  of  the  highest  value. 

2  Hof-og  Stats  Kalender,  1912. 


ORGANIZATION   AND  ADMINISTRATION    OF   EDUCATION. 

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22  THE   EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OE  DENMARK. 

and  inspectors.  There  is  a  counselor  in  matters  pertaining  to  ele- 
mentary education,  whose  function  it  is  to  pass  judgment  on  ques- 
tions submitted  to  him  by  the  ministry,  submit  plans  for  improve- 
ments in  the  school  system,  and  judge  of  the  serviceableness  of  school 
materials.  Further,  the  counselor  assists  the  ministry  in  his  inspec- 
tion of  the  normal  schools.  Another  counselor  gives  advice  in  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  libraries. 

There  are  four  inspectors  of  special  subjects,  who  report  to  the 
ministry  concerning  the  work  of  the  schools  in  their  respective  sub- 
jects and  express  opinions  on  questions  submitted  to  them  by  the 
ministry.  Of  these,  three  are  inspectors,  respectively,  of  music,  gym- 
nastics, and  sloyd  for  elementary,  secondary,  and  normal  schools.  A 
fourth  inspects  drawing  in  State  and  private  normal  schools  and 
technical  schools.  There  are,  furthermore,  an  inspector  of  complete 
secondary  schools,  one  for  middle  and  Keal  schools,  and  one  for 
people's  high  schools,  agricultural  schools,  and  schools  of  domestic 
science. 

The  accompanying  table  aims  to  give  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  Denmark,  together  with  the  educa- 
tional boards. 


ORGANIZATION   AND   ADMINISTRATION    OP   EDUCATION. 


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24-  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMARK. 

Civil  and  ecclesiastical  divisions. — The  smallest  civil  unit  is  the 
commune.  Of  these  there  are  three  kinds:  (1)  Copenhagen  (popu- 
lation, 426,000)  is  in  a  class  by  itself,  enjoying  self-government  in  a 
high  degree.  (2)  Provincial  cities  (Kobsteder)  are  those  centers  of 
population,  usually  the  larger,  which  enjoy  a  city  form  of  govern- 
ment. There  are  12  with  a  population  of  over  10,000;  25  with  be- 
tween 4,000  and  10,000;  and  37  below  1,000.  (3)  Rural  communes; 
in  these  there  are  many  villages  which  are  of  considerable  size,  but 
are  not  incorporated  as  distinct  governmental  units. 

The  rural  communes  are  combined  to  form  the  next  larger  civil 
units  {Herreder)  which,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  w^e  may  call  town- 
ships. These  together  with  the  cities  again  form  the  amter  or  coun- 
ties, the  largest  civil  subdivisions  of  the  county. 

Largely  parallel  with  these  divisions  are  the  ecclesiastical  units. 
In  large  city  communes  there  may  be  several  parishes.  In  the  rural 
districts,  however,  the  parish  usually  coincides  territorially  with  the 
commune  as  does  the  next  larger  ecclesiastical  unit,  the  deanery, 
with  the  township.  There  the  parallelism  stops ;  the  next  and  largest 
ecclesiastical  subdivision,  the  bishopric,  comprises  several  counties 
and  corresponds  to  no  civil  unit. 

Each  subdivision  has  its  administrative  head,  and  some  of  the 
civil  units  have  governing  boards,  as  the  table  indicates.  The  table 
also  shows  the  position  of  educational  boards,  whose  composition  and 
functions  will  be  discussed  hereafter.  Several  of  the  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical officers  and  civil  boards  act  also  in  an  educational  capacity, 
supplementing  the  work  of  educational  authorities  proper,  wherefore 
a  consideration  of  their  functions  in  so  far  as  they  relate  to  educa- 
tion must  be  included  in  the  presentation. 

Bishops. — In  addition  to  their  ecclesiastical  functions,  it  is  the 
duty  of  bishops  to  keep  closely  in  touch  with  all  the  elementary 
schools  within  their  respective  bishoprics,  inspect  them  by  personal 
visits,  and  receive  reports  from  the  school  boards  and  school  com- 
missions. As  a  part  of  th«ir  inspections,  which  occur  about  every 
other  year,  the  bishops  examine  the  pupils  to  determine  how  they 
have  been  instructed,  endeavor  in  general  to  learn  how  the  teachers 
do  their  work,  and  give  needed  guidance  as  well  as  censure  neglect 
of  duty.  They  report  to  the  ministry.  The  bishop  has,  furthermore, 
the  right  to  ap]3oint  teachers  to  certain  positions  formerly  held  by 
parish  clerks  and  issue  to  all  teachers  in  public  schools  hollats^  which 
is  a  document  certifying  that  the  teacher  has  been  regularly  ap- 
pointed to  office  and  recommending  him  to  the  good  will  of  the  resi- 
dents of  his  school  district.  Finally,  by  royal  resolution  of  1903, 
the  inspection  of  teachers'  training  in  the  State  normal  schools  is 
made  a  duty  of  the  respective  bishops  in  whose  territory  the  schools 
are  located. 


^H  boai 


OEGANIZATION   AND   ADMINISTRATION   OF   EDUCATION.  25 


ounty  school  hoards. — The  county  school  board  is  a  composite 
board  for  each  county,  made  up  of  the  members  of  the  several  district 
school  boards  within  the  county.  Its  chief  function  is,  in  conjunction 
with  the  county  school  council,  to  administer  the  county  school  fund. 
It  meets  at  least  once  each  year  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  the 
school  budget  for  the  coming  fiscal  year. 

County  school  council. — We  have  referred  previously  to  the  county 
school  council.  This  board  is  made  up  of  the  members  of  the  county 
civil  council  and,  in  addition,  of  certain  members  elected  by  the  pro- 
vincial cities  within  the  county.  The  number  of  elective  members 
must  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  number  of  members  in  the  county 
civil  council  as  the  population  of  the  city  bears  to  the  rural  popula- 
tion of  the  county.  The  participation  of  this  body  in  fixing  the 
school  budget  has  been  mentioned.  It  furthermore  administers  the 
capital  of  the  school  fund,  and  no  money  may  be  expended  from  this 
without  the  sanction  of  the  council. 

Requests  from  school  districts  for  building  loans  are  submitted 
to  the  ministry  through  the  county  school  council,  and  in  the  event 
of  requiring  a  community  to  make  alterations  in  its  school  build- 
ings action  is  not  taken  by  the  ministry  without  an  opinion  from 
this  council.  It  keeps  a  list  of  teachers  employed  in  the  county, 
with  their  periods  of  service,  fixes  widows'  pensions,  and  by  the 
consent  of  the  ministry  may  appropriate  financial  aid  to  certain 
teachers  and  widows  who  are  not  entitled  to  pension. 

District  school  hoard. — As  appears  from  the  table,  there  is  a 
school  board  for  each  of  the  73  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  country, 
deaneries,  composed  of  (1)  the  county  chairman,  who  is  thus  a  member 
of  the  several  boards  within  his  county;  (2)  the  dean;  and  (3)  a 
third  member  elected  by  the  county  school  council,  within  or  outside 
of  their  own  number,  usually  for  a  period  of  three  years.  The 
district  boards  serve  as  a  medium  between  the  ministry  and  the  local 
authorities.  Communications  from  the  ministry  to  the  local  authori- 
ties, as  well  as  from  the  latter  to  the  ministry,  pass  through  the  dis- 
trict school  board,  who  are  thus  enabled  to  add  such  comments  as 
may  be  desired.  The  boards  are  usually  the  final  authority  in  ap- 
proving school  programs.  They  approve  plans  and  specifications 
for  erection  or  remodeling  of  school  buildings  coming  within  the 
limits  of  the  law,  and  such  approval  is  necessary.  They  normally 
elect  permanent  teachers  in  the  common  schools,  and  the  election  of 
temporary  teachers  must  have  their  approval.  They  exercise  super- 
vision over  the  schools  within  their  respective  districts  and  are 
invested  with  authority  over  the  schools  and  teachers.  The  dean, 
as  a  member  of  the  board,  personally  inspects  the  schools  and  reports 
thereon  to  the  ministry.     It  is  his  duty  to  observe  tjaat  laws  and 


26  THE   EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 

regulations  are  enforced,  such  as  the  employment  of  an  additional 
teacher  when  the  number  of  pupils  exceeds  the  legal  limit,  and  the 
imposing  and  collection  of  fines  for  illegal  absences.  The  boards 
report  to  the  ministry. 

Local  civil  council. — The  local  civil  council,  both  in  the  provincial 
cities-  and  in  rural  communities,  administers  the  finances  of  the  local 
schools,  and  no  economic  question,  such  as  that  of  salaries,  can  be 
decided  without  the  action  of  the  council.  It  has  charge  of  the 
erection  and  maintenance  of  school  buildings,  enforces  compulsory 
attendance  laws,  imposes  and  collects  fines  for  their  violation,  sanc- 
tions the  continuance  of  a  child  in  school  beyond  the  compulsory 
age,  and  decides,  with  reference  to  the  furnishing  of  school  mate- 
rials, whether  or  not  a  child's  parents  shall  be  deemed  poor.  The 
local  council  furthermore  nominates  teachers,  with  the  advice  of  the 
school  commission,  and  fills  temporary  vacancies.  It  participates 
in  mapping  out  school  programs  and  courses  of  study  and  approves 
choice  of  textbooks. 

In  cities  the  councils  usually  delegate  various  duties  to  standing 
and  special  committees,  while  in  rural  communities  the  councils  may 
delegate  particular  duties  to  individual  members,  but  may  give  no 
general  authority  to  act  on  behalf  of  the  council. 

School  commission. — The  immediate  supervision  of  the  schools  and 
the  work  of  teachers  is  in  the  hands  of  a  local  school  commission, 
whose  composition  appears  from  the  table.  If  the  commission  has 
four  elective  members,  two  of  these  shall  be  fathers  or  widows  with 
children  of  school  age.  No  other  women  are  eligible  to  membership. 
In  rural  districts  the  pastor  is  chairman,  and  the  .commission  meets 
at  his  call  or  that  of  a  majority  of  the  members.  In  cities  the  chair- 
man is  elected,  and  the  commission  meets  at  his  call  or  that  of  a 
pastor.  The  duties  of  the  commission  are  much  the  same  in  rural 
and  city  districts.  Its  members  may  visit  the  schools  personally. 
In  the  rural  districts,  universally,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  smaller 
cities,  the  inspection  is  performed  by  the  clerical  member  of  the 
commission.  During  visits  in  the  schools  the  inspector,  by  listening 
to  the  instruction,  talking  with  children  and  otherwise,  is  to  gain 
an  insight  into  the  professional  work  of  the  teachers  and  condition 
of  the  schools  generally,  to  observe  that  laws  and  regulations  are 
enforced,  and  the  program  of  studies  carried  out.  The  chairman  of 
the  commission  has  the  right  to  require  the  pupils  examined  in  his 
presence  in  any  subject  desired,  and  he  may  himself  put  questions  to 
individual  pupils.  If  the  commission  finds  anything  to  criticize,  this 
is  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  teacher  concerned  and  possibly 
communicated  to  the  local  civil  council  or  district  board.  The  com- 
mission is  the  authority  nearest  to  the  teacher,  possesses  the  right 


ORGANIZATION   AND  ADMINISTRATION    OF   EDUCATION.  27 

discipline,  and  issues  testimonials  regarding  the  work  of  teachers. 
The  supervision  extends  also  to  private  schools.  In  these  as  well 
as  in  public  schools  the  commission  holds  and  chooses  censors  for  the 
required  school  examinations. 

The  commission  initiates  improvements  in  the  schools  by  making 
recommendations  to  the  local  civil  council  or  the  district  school 
board  and  makes  recommendations  to  the  local  council  as  to  choice  of 
textbooks  and  supply  of  school  materials.  It  furthermore  partici- 
pates in  arranging  school  programs  and  courses  of  study,  and  its 
members  have  a  seat,  though  without  a  vote,  in  the  meeting  of  the 
local  civil  council,  in  which  teachers  are  nominated  or  temporary 
vacancies  filled.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  commission  also  to  observe  that 
the  attendance  laws  are  enforced,  that  pupils  are  vaccinated,  and 
regulate  with  medical  assistance  the  attendance  of  children  suffering 
from  contagious  diseases.  Annually,  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
close  of  the  calendar  year,  the  commission  submits  its  report  on  the 
condition  of  its  schools  to  the  district  school  board. 

Participation  of  teachers  in  administration. — In  cities  the  teachers 
in  each  school  constitute  a  teachers'  council,  of  which  the  head 
teacher  or  principal  is  chairman.  In  case  of  several  schools  a  joint 
council  is  formed,  presided  over  by  the  superintendent.  The  council 
meets  at  least  twice  a  year,  and  otherwise  as  often  as  its  chairman  or 
the  school  commission  finds  it  necessary.  In  rural  districts  there  is  no 
corresponding  council,  but  the  permanent  teachers,  individually  or 
collectively,  may  give  their  opinion  on  certain  questions.  To  the 
teachers'  council  are  submitted  all  questions  relating  to  the  instruc- 
tion in  the  particular  school,  daily  life  of  the  school,  vacations, 
course  of  study,  time  table,  procuring  of  new  materials,  promotions, 
departmental  or  class  teacher  systems,  expansion  of  a  school  by  addi- 
tion of  middle  or  Real  school,  erection  of  new  buildings,  alteration 
of  districts,  new  teaching  positions,  granting  of  free  places,  rewards, 
additions  to  libraries,  and  some  other  minor  matters. 

The  purely  administrative  routine  in  each  school  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  teacher  or  of  the  head  teacher  or  principal.  The  principal 
supervises  all  the  activities  of  his  school.  In  his  relation  to  the 
teachers'  work  he  observes  that  the  instruction  begins  and  ends  at 
the  proper  time,  that  the  teachers  carry  out  the  course  of  study 
prescribed,  for  which  purpose  he  may  visit  classes.  He  is  n  )t 
considered  an  authority  over  the  teachers.  This  rests  with  the  com- 
mission, but  in  most  cities  the  commission  has  delegated  to  princi- 
pals certain  powers  with  regard  to  the  teachers,  which  give  them  a 
position  of  very  considerable  authority.  The  principal  also  super- 
vises the  conduct  of  the  pupils,  arranges  with  teachers  to  supervise 
playgrounds  during  recesses ;  he  oversees  the  caretaking  of  buildings, 


28  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMAEK. 

grounds,  and  equipment;  enrolls,  assigns  to  classes,  and  discharges 
pupils;  keeps  the  records  for  the  school  as  a  whole,  and  prepares  the 
required  reports.  He  procures  substitutes  in  case  of  teachers'  tem- 
porary absence,  submits  to  the  commission  recommendations  as  to 
examinations,  transfers,  school  programs,  vacations,  and,  if  required, 
submits  estimates  for  the  school  budget.  He  may  also  be  delegated 
by  the  ministry  to  inspect  the  private  schools  in  his  city. 

In  the  larger  cities  with  several  schools  there  are  appointed  school 
superintendents,  whose  duties  are  specified  and  approved  by  the 
ministry.  To  such  officer  the  commission  delegates  a  very  large  part 
of  its  functions,  notably  as  to  leadership  of  the  school  system  and 
supervision  of  teachers,  and  his  position  is  thus  much  like  that  of  an 
American  city  superintendent. 

Administration  of  schools  in  Copenhagen. — Educationally  as  well 
as  politically  the  capital  city  enjoys  self-government  in  a  much  larger 
degree  than  other  cities.  It  is  governed  by  a  board  of  42  citizen 
representatives  elected  by  the  people,  a  president  appointed  by  the 
King,  and  four  city  department  heads  elected  by  the  board  of  repre- 
sentatives. The  president  and  the  department  heads  constitute  the 
magistracy.  The  highest  educational  authority  is  the  board  of  educa- 
tion, of  three  members — the  president  of  the  city  government,  that 
division  head  under  which  schools  classify,  and  a  resident  dean  or 
pastor  appointed  by  the  ministry. 

The  leadership  of  the  school  system  is  assigned  to  a  superintendent, 
who  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  and  has  a  seat  in  that  body, 
though  without  a  vote.  He  is  nominated  by  the  magistracy,  elected 
by  the  board  of  representatives,  and  his  election  is  approved  by 
the  King.  The  superintendent  is  assisted  by  two  vice  superin- 
tendents, one  of  whom  inspects  communal  secondary  and  all  private 
schools,  which  have  not  the  right  to  hold  secondary  examinations. 
Private  schools,  both  in  and  out  of  Copenhagen  which  have  this 
privilege  are  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  ministry.  The 
other  vice  superintendent  inspects  the  public  elementary  schools. 
There  are  furthermore  special  inspectors  of  gymnastics,  drawing, 
music,  needlework,  and  school  kitchens.  The  principal  of  each  school 
is  its  executive  head,  and  he  is  also  the  professional  leader  and 
supervisor  of  his  teachers.  Complaints  are  heard,  however,  that 
clerical  duties  are  too  numerous  to  permit  of  sufficient  attention  to  the 
latter  function.  Efforts  are  made  to  remedy  this  difficulty  by  the 
appointment  of  a  man  and  woman  to  serve  as  vice  principals.  These 
are  found  in  nearly  all  schools,  and  assist  the  principal  with  routine 
and  clerical  duties,  as  well  as  officiate  in  his  absence. 

Proposed  modiiications. — Thus  in  brief  is  the  manner  in  which  the 
Danish  school  system  at  present  is  administered.    A  bill  providing 


ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION.  29 

for  a  considerable  readjustment  of  the  administration  and  supervi- 
sion of  elementary  education  has  been  up  for  consideration  in  Par- 
liament. One  feature  of  the  bill  looks  to  a  reduction  of  ecclesiastical 
control  and  inspection  and  the  substitution  of  professional  super- 
vision. Late  reports  indicate  that  the  bill  has  not  yet  been  enacted 
into  law,  although  sentiment  favoring  a  change  obtains  generally 
among  educational  leaders. 


Chapter  III. 

ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION. 

De-pnition. — In  the  legal  and  narrow  sense  the  elementary  schools 
of  Denmark  {Folheskole)  include  the  public  communal  schools  in 
which  children  of  school  age  receive  such  specified  instruction 
as  the  laws  make  obligatory  for  every  child.  The  term  "  elementary 
education,"  as  used  in  this  study,  has  previously  been  defined  as  em- 
bracing the  instruction  given  in  the  first  five  years  of  school  life  to 
all  children  and  the  further  cultural  instruction  given  those  who 
after  five  years  of  schooling  do  not  enter  a  secondary  school.  In  this 
broad  sense  the  term  will  include  both  public  and  private  schools; 
but  ordinarily  it  will  have  reference  to  the  elementary  education 
given  in  the  public  schools. 

Gompulsory  education. — From  7  to  14  years  of  age  every  child  in 
Denmark  must  receive  instruction  in  public  or  private  schools  or  in 
the  home.  If  a  child  is  defective,  so  as  not  to  profit  by  the  ordinary 
form  of  instruction,  his  training  is  legally  provided  for  in  suitable 
institutions.  That  the  compulsory-education  laws  are  efficiently  en- 
forced is  evident  from  the  fact  that  of  every  1,000  children  of  school 
age  in  1909  the  number  not  receiving  instruction  was  a  fraction  less 
than  4.^  In  Copenhagen  alone  the  number  was  a  fraction  more  than 
4.^  And  the  absence  of  these  4  may  be  accounted  for  by  various 
causes,  such  as  not  yet  enrolled,  continued  illness,  or  mental  defects. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  a  little  more  particularly  the  means 
employed  to  produce  this  result.  Responsibility  for  keeping  children 
in  school  is  placed  primarily  upon  parents  and  guardians,  who,  as 
will  appear,  may  be  called  to  account  for  neglects.  The  school  cen- 
sus, which  gives  so  much  trouble  in  American  cities,  with  their 
shifting  population,  is  kept  rigorously  up  to  date.  In  the  cities  re- 
sponsibility for  it  rests  upon  the  city  council,  it  being  obtained  and 
checked  up  in  connection  with  a  general  population  census  or  by 
special  enumerators.  In  the  rural  districts  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
teacher  or  the  head  teacher  to  keep  the  census  up  to  date,  and  the 

iDan.  Stat,  FolkeskoleA'aesenet,  1909,  p.  82. 
•Annual  School  Report,  1910,  p.  16. 


30  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM    OP   DENMARK. 

school  commission  is  instructed  to  see  that  this  is  done  and  that  no 
name  is  legally  stricken  from  the  lists. 

But  the  State  goes  further  and  places  upon  parents  and  guardians 
the  duty  of  reporting  to  the  local  civil  council  the  removal  of  a 
child  from  one  district  and  its  arrival  in  another.  Failure  to  do  this 
incurs  a  penalty  of  from  66  ore  ^  to  4  kroner  ^  a  week.  Furthermore, 
the  name  of  a  removed  child  must  not  be  stricken  from  the  census  in 
the  district  where  he  has  attended  until  satisfactory  evidence  is  at 
hand  to  show  that  the  child  is  in  attendance  elsewhere  and  his  name 
entered  on  the  census  there.  Failure  to  make  such  a  report  within  a 
reasonable  time  incurs  a  penalty  in  the  district  from  which  the  child 
has  been  removed,  even  if  meantime  he  has  actually  been  in  attend- 
ance elsewhere. 

It  is  obligatory  upon  every  child  enrolled  in  public  schools  to  at- 
tend every  day  that  school  is  in  session.  The  laws  fix  the  minimum 
amount  of  schooling  a  year  for  each  pupil  at  41  weeks  of  18  hours  in 
the  rural  districts  and  21  hours  in  the  cities.  Ordinarily  the  only 
valid  excuses  are  illness  of  children,  contagious  disease  in  family,  bad 
weather,  impassable  roads,  and  attendance  upon  confirmation  classes. 
Absence  without  valid  excuse  incurs  automatically  a  penalty  of  12 
ore  for  each  day  within  a  month.  If  illegal  absence  occurs  in  more 
than  one  month  within  a  half  year,  the  fine  is  automatically  doubled 
for  each  succeeding  month,  but  not  to  exceed  1  krone  per  day.  Not 
later  than  the  5th  of  every  other  month  the  teachers  must  submit  to 
the  local  council  lists  of  absences,  both  excused  and  unexcused,  occur- 
ring in  the  two  previous  months,  with  alleged  reasons  for  absence. 
By  the  15th  of  the  month  the  lists  must  be  considered  in  a  meeting  of 
the  local  council  and  penalties  imposed  as  per  legal  requirements. 

The  council  has  the  right  to  refrain  from  imposing  penalties  in 
certain  cases  where  humanitarian  or  like  interests  dictate  it.  Fines 
are  then  collected,  if  necessary,  by  compulsory  measures.  Failing 
collection,  a  term  in  prison  may  be  imposed,  the  length  of  which  cor- 
responds to  the  amount  of  the  fine.  A  copy  of  the  lists,  with  infor- 
mation as  to  penalties  imposed,  must  then  be  sent  to  the  district 
school  board,  in  order  that  this  body  may  know  how  the  laws  are 
being  enforced  in  each  locality,  and  possibly  modify  the  actions  of 
the  local  council. 

School  districts. — In  rural  sections  the  school  district  may  comprise 
a  whole  commune,  a  part  of  one,  two,  or  more.  In  1901  there  were 
3,224  rural  districts.^  Their  size  is  determined  by  two  considera- 
tions— the  number  of  children  within  its  limits,  and  the  distance 
from  the  schoolhouse.  The. average  size  of  rural  districts  is  12 
square  kilometers,  and  the  average  distance  from  center  to  outside 

1  See  Prefatory  Note. 

a  Dan.  Stat.   Folkeskolevsesenet,  1901,  pp.  96-99. 


ELEMENTAEY  EDUCATION".  31 

IS  2  kilometers.  It  is  obligatory  upon  the  communes  to  keep  the 
roads  passable  at  all  times  of  the  year.  Cities  constitute  single  dis- 
[tricts,  there  being  75  of  these  in  the  whole  country. 

Grounds  and  buildings. — Danish  school  sites  are  generally  high 
and  open,  with  ample  supply  of  light  and  air.  In  rural  districts  and 
villages  school  grounds  are  generous,  and  25  per  cent  of  the  schools 
have  their  own  or  rented  gymnasia.^  Practically  every  city  school 
has  its  own  gymnasium,  while  a  none  too  large  paved  court  yard, 
around  which  the  buildings  are  grouped,  constitutes  the  open-air 
plaj^grounds. 

A  regulation  one-room  school  must  have  at  least  5,000  cubic  feet 
of  air  space,  the  minimum  height  from  floor  to  ceiling  being  10  feet. 
City  schools  generally  surpass  the  minimum  requirements. 

Jacketed  stoves  are  the  ordinary  means  of  heating,  though  central 
heating  is  being  introduced,  especially  in  new  buildings  in  cities, 
together  with  central  ventilation  systems.  Facilities  for  ventilation 
are  inadequate  in  many  buildings,  but  school  people  are  awake  to 
the  situation  and  improvements  are  on  the  program. 

Danish  school  people,  generally  speaking,  do  not  seem  to  have 
awakened  to  a  feeling  of  any  need  for  extended  blackboard  space. 
A  beginning  toward  larger  facilities,  especially  for  the  lower  grades, 
is  being  made,  however,  in  some  new  buildings  and  model  schools. 
Desks  and  seats,  usually  for  two  pupils,  are  built  together  on  a  mov- 
able frame  which,  by  means  of  a  platform,  raises  the  feet  about  4  or 
6  inches  above  the  floor.  Whether  intended  or  not,  this  would  seem 
to  afford  excellent  protection  for  the  feet  against  the  cold  air  along 
the  floor. 

In  some  schools  slippers  are  furnished  free  for  the  use  of  those 
children  who  wear  w^ooden  shoes,  and  their  use  is  then  compulsory  , 
upon  those  children  who  do  not  furnish  their  own.  The  provision 
is  a  very  wise  one,  protecting  as  it  does  the  health  of  children.,  clean- 
liness of  schoolrooms,  and  perhaps  not  least  the  teachers'  nerves.  It 
is  curious  to  see  the  slippers  or  the  wooden  shoes,  as  the  case  may  be, 
ranged  in  rows  on  little  shelves  in  cloak  rooms  or  hallways. 

A  striking  and  pleasing  feature  of  nearly  all  Danish  schoolrooms 
is  the  abundance  of  excellent  prints  which  adorn  the  walls.     Archi-   / 
tecture,  sculpture,  and  painting,  both  ancient  and  modern,  are  repre- 
sented, especially  in  the  upper  grades  and  in  secondary  schools. 

Responsibility  for  keeping  the  school  buildings  and  equipment 
clean  rests  upon  the  local  civil  council.  The  regulations  in  regard 
to  the  hygiene  of  school  buildings  are  detailed  and  excellent. 

Kinds  of  schools. — Within  each  rural  district  there  is  either  one 
school  with  pupils  of  all  ages  or  a  head  school  for  the  older  children, 

iKmidsen,  Gymnastikens  Tilstand,  1910,  p.  25. 
3334"— 15 3 


32  THE  EDUCATIOl^rAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMAKK. 

ages  11  to  14,  and  one  or  more  preparatory  schools  for  the  younger 
children  from  6  to  10  years  of  age.  Preparatory  schools  are  found 
only  in  some  rural  districts  and  are  taught  by  teachers  of  only  one 
year's  professional  training. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  type  of  schools,  there  are  found  in  some 
poorer  and  thinly  populated  areas  "infant"  schools  for  children  6 
to  9,  taught  by  teachers  of  inferior  training ;  "  winter  "  schools,  where 
instruction  is  given  only  during  the  winter  months,  and  "  ambula- 
tory "  schools. 

Schools  in  rural  sections  and  smaller  cities  are  generally  coeduca- 
tional. In  Copenhagen  boys  and  girls  attend  in  the  same  buildings, 
but  have  separate  classrooms  and  playgrounds.  As  a  usual  thing, 
boys  are  taught  by  men  and  girls  by  women.  The  younger  boys, 
however,  are  frequently  taught  by  women. 

Free  and  pay  schools. — In  Copenhagen  and  some  other  cities  pub- 
lic elementary  schools  are  of  two  kinds — free  schools  and  pay 
schools.  The  object  in  maintaining  pay  schools  is  evidently  not  to 
produce  revenue,  for  the  tuition  is  very  low,  being  1  krone  a  month 
per  pupil.  The  reason  is  to  be  sought  rather  in  the  effort  to  dis- 
courage the  many  inefficient  but  costly  private  schools  which  formerly 
flourished  by  reason  of  the  unfavorable  attitude  of  certain  classes 
toward  the  heterogeneous  public  free  school.  The  establishment  of 
public  schools  where  tuition  is  charged  satisfied  many  of  these  upper 
classes  of  the  masses.  The  public  pay  school  has  therefore  come  into 
favor  to  the  destruction  of  many  private  schools. 

The  tuition,  even  though  small,  is  sufficient  to  keep  out  the  very 
poor,  and  thus  there  results  a  school  with  a  better  clientele  to  which 
parents,  even  of  the  better  classes,  do  not  hesitate  to  send  their  chil- 
dren. Pedagogically,  too,  it  has  seemed  advantageous  to  have  the 
children  grouped  in  schools  according  to  the  station  of  the  parents. 
The  school  people  seem  satisfied  that  there  exists  a  positive  correla- 
tion between  limited  means  and  intellectual  incapacity.  Be  the  theor- 
etical truth  what  it  may,  there  is  perhaps  considerable  evidence  to 
support  the  view  stated.  Children  in  Copenhagen  are  on  a  half -day 
schedule,  and  the  poor  children  very  generally  spend  the  part  of  the 
day  that  they  are  not  in  school  in  work  to  help  support  their  house- 
holds. Consequently  they  come  to  school  in  a  fagged-out  condition, 
especially  for  the  afternoon  session,  and  are  physically  incapable  of 
the  best  school  efforts.  This  situation  is  not  so  true  of  children  in  the 
better  homes,  wherefore  teachers  feel  that  better  work  is  possible  in 
their  case,  and  consequently  a  division  along  the  lines  of  means  pro- 
duces groups  of  children  more  homogeneous  in  point  of  available 
capacity. 

The  city  is  laid  out  into  districts  in  such  a  way  that  both  a  free 
school  and  a  pay  school  are  within  reasonable  distance  of  all  homes. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  33 

though  ordinarily  efforts  have  been  made  to  avoid  overlapping.  It 
is  not  so  true  of  Copenhagen,  however,  as  of  some  larger  American 
cities  that  the  poorer  classes  are  grouped  in  districts.  Rich  and  poor 
live  frequently  in  the  same  neighborhood.  This  constitutes  an  addi- 
tional reason  for  sorting  the  children.  The  small  tuition  serves  in 
Copenhagen  as  a  selective  instrument  to  accomplish  somewhat  the 
same  result  as  that  brought  about  by  geographical  distribution  in 
some  American  cities. 

Organization. — The  number  of  teachers  in  a  school  is  determined 
by  the  number  of  pupils.  In  rural  districts  the  average  enrollment 
must  not  exceed  37  in  two  successive  years  for  each  teacher  em- 
ployed. But  as  there  are  normally  two  classes  meeting  on  alternate 
days  or  half  days,  the  actual  maximum  number  of  children  to  a 
teacher  is  twice  the  above — 74  for  one  and  148  for  two  teachers.  In 
cities  the  maximum  per  teacher  is  35  pupils.  Whenever  the  enroll- 
ment surpasses  the  legal  limit  facilities  must  be  provided  b}^  the  ad- 
dition of  another  teacher  or  a  new  school  or  by  the  transfer  of  pupils 
to  another  school. 

As  to  internal  organization,  a  one-teacher  school  is  usually  divided 
into  two  classes  for  ages  6  to  10  and  11  to  14,  respectively.  In  a  two- 
teacher  school  the  classes  number  four — ages  7  to  8,  9  to  10, 11  to  12, 
and  13  to  14.  A  complete  classification  gives  seven  classes.  In  some 
districts,  however,  there  is  an  eighth,  and  in  a  few  schools  even  a 
ninth  class.^  There  are  no  kindergartens  in  the  public  school  system. 
A  few  are  found  in  the  cities  operated  by  private  persons,  but  they 
are  not  at  all  general. 

Half-time  schedule. — Each  class  is  to  have  separate  instruction. 
This  means  that  in  a  one-teacher  school  with  two  classes  the  instruc- 
tion must  be  given  alternately.  Thus  each  class  is,  so  to  speak,  on 
half  time.  Instruction  is  provided  for  each  class  either  every  other 
day  or  in  half-day  sessions. 

Even  in  Copenhagen,  as  noted  above,  the  children  are  on  a  half- 
day  schedule.  One  group  attends  in  the  morning  from  8  to  1  o'clock 
and  another  in  the  afternoon  from  1  to  6.  This  is  the  case  through- 
out the  city,  and  is  not  a  mere  temporary  expedient,  but  a  deliberate 
arrangement.  The  system  is  economically  advantageous,  to  be  sure, 
in  that  only  about  half  as  many  plants  are  required  as  for  whole- day 
instruction.  There  may  also  be  some  advantage  in  this — that  many 
children  of  poor  parents  can  use  a  large  part  of  every  day  for  re- 
munerative work.  A  large  number  of  children  are  thus  engaged  out- 
side of  the  home.  The  work  is  mostly  of  an  incidental  nature,  such 
as  delivery  of  milk,  papers,  and  merchandise,  and  various  forms  of 
messenger  service.     While  it  may  be  advantageous  both  for  poor 

»  Dan.  Stat.,  op.  cit,  p.  130. 


34  THE  EDUCATIOlSrAL   SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 

parents  and  the  children  themselves  that  they  add  to  the  family  in- 
come by  honorable  work,  it  is  evident  that  for  children  of  school  age 
much  energy  spent  in  that  direction  must  detract  from  their  work  in 
school.     One  writer  puts  it  thus: 

Cliildren  from  12  to  14  years  of  age  are  driven  up  at  half  past  4  or  5  o'clock 
in  the  morning  in  order  to  ride  about  through  all  the  long  forenoon  on  a  shaky 
milk  wagon  and  run  up  and  down  kitchen  stairs  from  basement  to  attic  with 
heavy  baskets  of  bottles  on  their  shoulders.  When  they  are  finally  released 
about  noontime,  tired  and  fagged  out,  they  have  more  need  of  a  warm  meal 
and  a  good  long  after-dinner  nap  than  to  be  sent  to  school  for  full  five  hours 
to  be  instructed/ 

School  people  are  aware  of  the  disadvantages  attendant  upon  the 
half-day  scheme,  and  occasionally  their  and  other  voices  are  raised 
against  the  system,  but  the  tremendous  expenses  of  building  and 
equipping  a  duplicate  number  of  school  buildings  will  probably  op- 
erate to  continue  the  present  system  for  many  years  to  come,  especially 
since  the  city's  school  population  is  growing  so  fast  as  to  require 
frequently  new  buildings  even  with  the  half-day  program. 

Each  half  day  is  divided  into  five  hours  of  50  minutes  for  in- 
struction and  10  minutes  for  intermission.  During  the  intermission 
all  children  are  marched  to  the  courtyards  and  the  rooms  are  aired 
out.  The  hours  are  all  the  same  length  for  all  the  classes,  higher  and 
lower,  but  the  lowest  has  usually  only  four  hours  a  day.  The  hours 
seem  long  for  young  pupils.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  some 
five  minutes  in  addition  to  the  intermission  are  usually  consumed  in 
moving  from  and  to  classrooms.  In  lower  classes,  too,  songs  and 
recreative  exercises  are  sometimes  interspersed  throughout  the  in- 
struction. 

All  in  all,  one  gets  the  impression  that  school  is  a  serious  business, 
and  teachers  are  not  afraid  to  express  the  opinion  that  a  little  "  mor- 
tification of  the  flesh  "  is  a  good  thing  for  the  young  citizen. 

Discipline. — Discipline,  however,  can  by  no  means  be  considered 
severe.  In  fact,  in  some  schools  it  is  exceedingly  lax.  An  attempt 
is  made  to  have  the  children  form  and  keep  in  line  when  marching 
to  and  from  the  playgrounds,  but  the  attempt  is  not  always  highly 
successful.  There  is  nothing  of  German  militarism.  In  classrooms 
some  teachers  show  a  wonderful  capacity  by  the  strength  of  their  per- 
sonality for  putting  children  at  ease,  and  yet  retaining  control.  It 
is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  man  lean  on  a  desk  and  put  his  arm  around 
a  little  fellow's  neck,  playfully  pull  another's  ear  when  he  does 
not  answer  correctly,  or  poke  another  with  a  pointer.  In  other  rooms 
the  picture  is  less  attractive.  Whispering,  shuffling  of  feet,  and  a 
variety  of  other  diversions  busy  the  unoccupied  and  uninterested 

1  Bitack,  Demoralization  i  Kobenhavns  Kommuneskoler,  p.  9. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION. 


35 


children  until  the  teacher  is  aware  of  an  unusual  commotion  and 
stops  proceedings  in  order  to  administer  a  general  rebuke,  the  effect 
of  which  is  frequently  not  long  lasting. 

Teachers  complain  about  the  lack  of  discipline,  and  some  criticize 
severely  the  restrictions  placed  upon  corporal  punishment,  which 
practically  prohibit  its  use.  The  system  may  not  be  blameless,  but 
one  rather  feels  that  if  discipline  is  weak  it  is  rather  the  fault 
of  the  people  immediately  in  charge,  who  are  in  many  cases  not 
making  full  use  of  their  opportunities.  Unless  the  Danish  nature 
and  traditions  as  to  law  and  order  are  fundamentally  different  from 
the  American,  there  would  seem  to  be  possible  a  more  consistent  and 
helpful  discipline  without  running  over  into  militarism,  and  the 
means  to  produce  it  would  seem  to  lie  ready  in  the  hands  of  the  teach- 
ing force. 

Curriculum. — In  rural  districts  the  required  subjects  of  the  cur- 
riculum are  Danish,  religion,  writing,  arithmetic,  history,  geog- 
raphy, singing,  gymnastics  for  boys,  including  swimming  and  play, 
and  needlework  in  case  a  female  teacher  is  employed.  Optional  sub- 
jects are  the  following:  Nature  study,  hygiene,  sloyd,  gymnastics 
for  girls,  and  school  baths.  The  subjects  are  optional  only  with 
reference  to  being  entered  in  the  course  of  study  by  the  school  com- 
mission. Once  there,  they  are  compulsory  for  the  pupils.  City 
schools  and  many  rural  schools  have  a  somewhat  richer  curriculum 
than  the  above. 

The  following  are  the  time-tables  ^  for  the  Copenhagen  schools  in 
1910-11,  the  curriculum  being  identical  for  pay  schools  and  free 
schools : 


Table  2. — Time  taUe  for  hoys,  Copenhagen  public  schools,  1910-11. 


Subjects. 

Classes. 

Total. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Fourth. 

Fifth. 

Sixth. 

Seventh. 

Eighth. 

Religion 

2 
10 
3 
6 

2 

2 

9 
3 
6 

3 
2 

3 

9 
3 
6 

3 
9 

\ 

3 

8 
2 

4 

2 

7 
2 

4 

2 
6 

1 
4 

2 
5 

A 

19 
63 
17 
35 

Daiiish 

Writing        

Observational      instructin 
and  home  geography 

5 

2 
2 
1 

2 

2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

2 

1 
1 
2 
4 

2 
1 

2 

5 
2 

4' 

3 

Geogranhv 

10 
8 
6 
9 

Natural  science 

German 

Bookkeeping 

2 

Singing 

1 

1 
2 
2 

1 

2 
2 

2 

4(2) 

(2) 

2 

4(2) 

(2) 

1 

2 

4(2) 

(2) 

6 
14 

Drawing 

2 

2 

23  (m 

(6) 

Sloyd 

Toral 

24 

27 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

231 

lAnnuai  School  Report,  1910,  p.  4. 


36 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 


Table  3. — Time  table  for  girls,  Copenhagen  public  schools,  1910-11 

^ 

Subjects. 

Classes. 

Total. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Fourth. 

Fifth. 

Sixth. 

Seventh.  Eighth. 

Religion 

2 
9 
3 
4 

2 

2 

8 
2 
5 

3 
2 

3 
8 
2 
5 

3 
8 
2 
4 

3 
7 
2 
4 

2 

7 
2 
4 

1 
2  1            5» 

19 

Danish 

6 

5 

58 

Writing 

13 

Arithmetic  

4 

2 

32 

Observational      instruction 

and  home  geography 

History 

5 

2 
2 

1 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

1 

2 

1 
1 
2 

2 

1 

2 

6 
1 
3 
6 

14 

Geography 

10 

Nature  study 

g 

Natural  science 

5 

German 

6 

Singing 

.. 

1 

1 
2 
4 

1 
2 
4 

1 
3 
4 

1 
3 
4 

1 
3 
4 

7 

Gymnastics 

16 

Needlework 

4 

4 

34 

Domestic  science 

4 

Total 

24 

27 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

231 

Religion. — Keligion  is  taught  in  all  classes.^  Through  the  seven 
years  the  instruction  is  based  on  material  from  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  In  the  first  three  years  the  instruction  is  oral,  supple- 
mented largely  by  the  use  of  pictures,  of  which  many  excellently 
adapted  for  the  purpose  are  found  in  the  schools.  In  the  following 
years  books  of  Bible  history  are  used,  and  through  conversation  with 
the  children  about  the  biblical  stories  the  chief  elements  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  are  taught.  These  are  further  explained  and  amplified  by 
committing  to  memory  selected  hymns  that  bear  on  the  subject  under 
consideration,  as  also  Scripture  passages  from  an  authorized  text- 
book, the  body  of  which  is  not  to  be  committed  to  memory,  but  may 
be  used  as  a  guide  to  the  instruction.  In  the  upper  classes  the  pupils 
are  trained  in  looking  up  the  references  to  the  New  Testament.  In 
the  leaving  class  there  is  given  an  elementary  course  in  the  history 
of  the  Christian  church.  That  the  instruction  in  religion  is  very 
formal  in  many  instances  is  rather  to  be  expected,  but  it  must  also 
be  said  that  to  a  great  many  teachers  the  work  in  religion  is  a  very 
vital  matter.  Voices  are  heard  for  the  removal  of  religion  as  a  sub- 
ject from  the  public  schools  of  the  country,  but  the  great  inajority 
of  the  people  entertain  strong  convictions  as  to  the  wisdom  of  its 
retention. 

Normally,  at  the  close  of  the  seventh  year  of  school  children  are 
confirmed.  For  half  a  year  previously  they  participate  in  a  con- 
firmation preparatory  class  conducted  by  the  pastor  of  the  parish. 
Sessions  are  usually  of  two  hours  twice  a  week.  They  are  sometimes 
held  in  the  evening,  but  more  commonly  from  12  to  2  p.  m.,  so  that 
forenoon  and  afternoon  pupils,  respectively,  miss  only  one  hour 
from  school. 


1  The  remarks  here  made  on  the  curriculum  have  reference  particularly  to  the  public 
schools  of  Copenhagen. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  87 

Danish. — Danish  is  easily  the  major  subject  in  the  elementary 
school,  comprising  27  per  cent  of  the  total  hours  of  instruction  for 
boys  and  25  per  cent  for  girls.  The  instruction  includes  reading, 
composition,  and  grammar.  Beading  is  begun  by  learning  the  alpha- 
bet, and  the  first  steps  in  spelling  by  the  writing-reading  method. 
The  phonetic  method  may  be  used,  and  is  recommended  where  con- 
ditions make  it  possible  to  use  it.  The  aim  of  the  first  year's  work 
is  that  the  children  may  be  able  to  read  short,  easy  stories  to  the 
amount  usually  found  in  one  of  the  larger  first  readers.  The  empha- 
sis is  placed  upon  a  good  pronunciation  and  the  comprehension  of 
the  contents  rather  than  upon  facility  in  reading.  The  writer  will 
not  soon  forget  the  shock  experienced  upon  entering  a  first-year  class 
toward  the  close  of  the  year.  The  little  fellows  were  reading  w^ords 
instead  of  sentences  in  an  unnatural  tone  of  voice  and  with  the  meas- 
ured regularity  of  drum  beats.  His  suprise  was  perhaps  just  as 
great  when  entering  a  second-year  class  to  hear  some  most  excellent 
reading  by  sentence  and  thought  grouping.  It  is  marvelous  that 
such  a  change  can  be  brought  about,  but  the  teachers  seem  to  think 
that  if  the  pupils  once  get  complete  control  of  the  symbols  the  read- 
ing of  the  thought  follows  naturally  as  a  matter  of  course.  Be  the 
explanation  what  it  may,  the  fact  remains  that  there  is  some  excel- 
lent reading  in  the  grades  above  the  first.  A  characteristic  feature 
of  the  work  throughout  is  requiring  the  pupils  to  tell  in  their  own 
words  what  they  have  read.  This  is  almost  invariably  done  from 
the  first  grade  up  and  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  exercises  in  oral 
language.  The  same  process  continues  in  modern-language  instruc- 
tion later,  and  it  is  quite  remarkable  how  much  a  child,  after  years 
of  this  training,  can  reproduce  of  a  story  or  paragraph  after  one 
reading  or  hearing  it  told.  Non  multa^  sed  multum  seems  to  be  the 
general  watchword  in  Danish  instruction,  arid  perhaps  nowhere  more 
evidently  observed  than  in  the  reading  instruction.  Every  portion 
read  is  worked  over  and  over  again  by  reproduction,  by  questioning 
as  to  meanings  of  w^ords,  phrases,  and  allusions,  so  that  it  becomes 
the  child's  very  own  and  he  can  reproduce  the  thought  entire-  Only 
one  book  of  some  100  to  150  pages  is  gone  through  in  a  year  in  the 
lower  classes.  This  is  read  and  reread  until  it  seems  that  the  pupils 
know  pretty  much  the  entire  thought  contents  by  heart.  The  mere 
mention  of  the  title  of  a  story  raises  a  score  of  frantic  hands,  indi- 
cating the  eagerness  to  tell  it,  and  they  do  it  in  good  language  with 
realistic  detail. 

The  above  indicates,  too,  the  manner  in  which  material  is  pre- 
pared for  composition.  After  a  story  has  been  thus  made  the  pupils' 
own,  they  reproduce  it  in  writing.  Later  of  course  original  compo- 
sitions are  written,  but  the  subject  matter  for  these,  too,  is  prepared 
by  oral  conversation  before  writing.     In  the  three  upper  classes  one 


3.8  THE    EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM    OF   DENMARK. 

composition  a  week  is  written.  Spelling  is  taught  in  connection 
with  both  the  reading  in  the  lower  classes  and  composition  w^ork. 

Formal  grammar  includes  phonetics,  word  formation,  parts  of 
speech,  inflection,  and  some  syntax.  Below  the  sixth  class  no  text- 
book in  grammar  is  permitted,  and  teachers  are  warned  against 
devoting  too  much  time  to  formal  grammar. 

Timining  in  observation. — Very  characteristic  is  the  work  called 
observational  instruction  and  home  geography.  The  purpose  of  this 
instruction  is  to  develop  the  observational  and  imaginative  powers 
of  the  children,  stimulate  their  self-activity,  and  encourage  them  to 
give  free  and  natural  expression  to  their  thoughts  and  impressions. 
The  work  is  done  as  much  as  possible  in  connection  Avith  actual 
objects  and  conditions.  If  this  is  not  possible,  models  and  pictures 
are  used,  as  well  as  representations  on  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher. 
The  pupils  are  also  encouraged  to  express  themselves  through  draw- 
ing. The  teachers  strive  to  lead  the  pupils  to  make  their  own  obser- 
vations and  draw  their  conclusions,  building  on  the  basis  of  pupils' 
nearest  interests  and  stock  of  information. 

A  review  lesson,  undertaken  to  give  an  idea  of  the  instruction, 
proceeded  somcAvhat  as  follows:  Topic — a  trip  to  the  woods  wdiich 
the  teacher  and  pupils  had  previously  made.  A  suitable  song  w^as 
sung.  The  school  was  located  on  a  sectional  map  and  the  road  to  the 
railway  station  traced,  the  streets  passed  through  being  named.  On 
a  smaller  scale  map  the  railway  journey  was  traced.  The  directions 
were  noted,  and  the  points  of  the  compass  were  discussed,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sun  and  its  movements,  and  length  of  days.  Through- 
out the  year  the  position  of  the  sun  had  been  noted  by  the  shadow 
cast  by  the  casing  of  a  certain  window  on  the  21st  of  each  month 
and  the  curve  of  the  sun's  course  platted  on  a  chart.  Having 
reached  the  woods,  the  objects  encountered  were  recalled  and  dis- 
cussed by  means  of  pictures  taken  and  objects  picked  up.  The 
characteristics  and  usefulness  of  the  trees  were  noted.  On  a  map 
of  the  region  visited,  which  had  been  constructed  by  teacher  and 
pupils,  were  pointed  out  the  walks  taken,  a  lake,  island,  peninsula, 
and  hill  with  sand  pit.  On  a  cross-sectional  draAving  of  the  sand  pit 
were  shown  loam,  sand,  and  clay,  and  their  characteristics  were  dis- 
cussed. On  top  of  the  hill  was  a  tree.  Its  supply  of  light  and 
moisture  and  the  service  of  the  roots  were  noted.  The  rain  process 
was  reviewed,  evaporation,  condensation,  fresh  water  from  salt, 
water  sinking  into  the  ground  down  to  the  clay,  origin  of  spring, 
brook,  and  lake.  A  fox's  hole  and  deer  had  been  observed ;  the  food 
and  habits  of  these  animals  were  discussed.  The  hour  closed  with  a 
number  of  songs  Avhich  had  been  suggested  by  the  lesson.  The 
pupils  talked  very  eagerly  and  freely  and  displayed  a  surprising 
grasp  of  the  processes  and  the  life  going  on  about  them. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  39 

Drawing. — In  the  first  years  of  school  there  is  no  ordered  instruc- 
tion in  drawing,  but  the  children  are  encouraged  to  give  graphic 
expression  to  their  observations  and  ideas.  With  the  third  class, 
however,  systematic  instruction  in  free-hand  drawing  is  begun  and 
carried  through  to  the  end  of  the  course,  the  aim  being  to  ena]:)le 
every  child  to  represent  correctly  on  paper  any  ordinary  object  ob- 
served. The  work  begins  by  training  the  eye  by  use  of  the  measuring 
pencil  to  determine  points,  straight  lines,  and  relationships  in  figures 
on  flat  surfaces.  Gradually  more  complicated  figures  and  curved 
lines  are  attempted.  When  these  are  mastered,  objects  are  introduced 
and  drawn  by  faithfully  adhering  to  the  principles  already  estab- 
lished. The  objects  progress  in  difficulty  from  a  regularly  shaped 
block  of  wood  or  a  box  to  a  bird  or  animal,  shading  and  sometimes 
coloring  being  included.  The  instruction  is  seriously  planned,  and 
executed  as  worthy  of  a  distinct  place  in  the  curriculum.  It  is  taken 
for  granted  that  children  can  not  draw  correctly  without  systematic 
instruction  any  more  than  they  can  w^rite  a  composition.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  this  tool  or  mode  of  expression  requires,  therefore,  serious 
and  continued  application.  Once  acquired,  its  practical  usefulness 
in  other  school  subjects  and  in  life  is  apparent. 

The  representation  on  paper  of  an  observed  object  by  the  use  of 
eye  and  hand  being  the  function  of  free-hand  drawing,  this  purpose 
is  aimed  at  from  the  beginning  and  consciously  striven  for.  The 
results  reached  by  elementary  school  pupils  are  indeed  very  remark- 
able and  truly  merit  the  commendation  which  they  have  received 
at  home  and  abroad  wherever  excellence  in  drawing  is  valued. 
Strangely  enough,  girls  are  not  favored  with  instruction  in  this 
subject  in  the  elementary  school.  One  reason  for  this  is  undoubtedly 
the  inability  to  see  the  practical  importance  of  this  art  in  the  subse- 
quent life  of  the  girl,  while  in  the  later  technical  or  professional 
training  of  the  boy  its  usefulness  is  readily  apparent.  Girls,  how- 
ever, are  given  a  course  in  the  middle  school. 

Other  subjects. — In  the  history  instruction,  story  telling  by  the 
teacher  and  reproduction  are  very  common.  In  the  upper  classes  the 
essentials  of  general  history  are  included,  in  addition  to  the  history 
of  Denmark.  The  geography  instruction  is  very  practical.  The  sub- 
jects that  are  of  much  importance  because  of  Denmark's  geographical 
location  are  emphasized.  Maps,  especially  physical,  and  pictures 
are  much  used. 

Nature  study,  though  elementary,  is  on  a  scientific  basis  and  is 
aided  by  splendid  botanical  and  zoological  materials.  A  good  collec- 
tion of  mounted  specimens  and  models  is  found  in  every  school,  from 
which  the  material  when  needed  is  taken  to  the  different  classrooms. 
The  study  culminates  in  human  physiology  and  hygiene.  In  physics 
the  instruction  is  built  on  the  general  observation  of  the  pupils  and 


40  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM    OF   DENMARK. 

experiments  in  the  classroom.  The  work  includes  the  elements  of  the 
main  divisions  of  physics  and  is  calculated  to  give  a  somewhat  rea- 
soned comprehension  and  appreciation  of  the  child's  environment. 
A  supply  of  physical  apparatus  is  at  hand  for  this  work. 

The  study  of  German  aims  at  a  reading  and  speaking  knoTvledge 
by  a  direct  method,  with  emphasis  on  only  the  most  essential  points 
of  grammar.  Sight  reading  and  conversation  occupy  considerable 
time  in  the  second  year's  work. 

The  work  in  arithmetic  is  not  particularly  characteristic.  Mental 
computation  is  emphasized  a  great  deal,  and  the  material  used 
throughout  seems  to  be  closely  related  to  the  interests  and  activities 
of  the  people.  The  course  in  bookkeeping  aims  to  give  the  knowledge 
required  for  keeping  a  tradesman's  books,  cashbook,  journal,  and 
ledger. 

In  writing,  the  semislant  system  is  used,  and  the  art  is  taught 
exceedingly  well.  Singing  includes  considerable  of  musical  theory, 
and  singing  from  notes  is  the  rule  throughout.  The  teacher  in- 
structs and  leads  the  singing  by  the  use  of  a  violin,  which  all  normal 
school  students  must  learn  to  play.  Some  experiments  are  being 
made  with  rhythmic  gymnastics. 

In  place  of  drawing  in  the  elementary  school,  girls  enjoy  a  thor- 
ough training  in  needlework,  which  extends  through  the  course. 
Domestic  science  is  being  rapidly  introduced.  Excellently  equipped 
school  kitchens  are  being  installed. 

The  same  is  true  of  sloyd  for  boys,  which  is  quite  universal,  the 
lack  of  suitable  room  and  facilities  having  hindered  its  introduc- 
tion in  some  schools.  The  work  is  regarded  as  having  pedagogic 
as  well  as  practical  significance,  especially  in  the  opportunity  given 
for  self-activity  and  creative  expression. 

The  attention  given  to  gymnastics  is  quite  remarkable  throughout 
all  Denmark,  and  in  Copenhagen  every  school  is  equipped  with  a 
roomy  and  well-furnished  gymnasium.  For  all  boys  and  all  but 
the  two  lower  classes  of  girls  gymnastics  are  required  unless  they 
are  exempted  by  medical  orders.  A  somewhat  modified  form  of 
the  Swedish  Lyng  system  is  used.  Throughout,  free  directed  play 
is  combined  with  the  formal  gymnastics,  in  the  gymnasium  in  the 
winter  months  and  in  the  open  air  in  summer,  association  foot  ball 
being  the  chief  outdoor  game  for  the  larger  boys  and  "long  ball" 
for  the  girls  and  smaller  boys.  Compulsory  bathing,  the  girls  one 
week  and  boys  the  next,  is  required  in  more  than  half  the  com- 
munal schools.  Instruction  in  swimming  is  given  from  June  to 
August. 

Specialists  displaced. — Some  of  the  above  subjects,  as  drawing 
and  gymnastics,  have  been  taught  hitherto  to  a  considerable  extent 
by  specialists,  artists,  and  Army  officers,  who  have  not  had  a  normal- 


ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION.  41 

school  training.  Hereafter  no  teacher  can  be  appointed  in  the 
elementary  schools  in  Denmark  who  has  not  passed  through  a  nor- 
mal school  or  holds  a  degree  from  the  university.  The  reason 
seems  to  be  chiefly  that  professionals  in  art  and  the  like  lack  the 
necessary  pedagogic  training.  Furthermore,  the  criticism  is  offered 
that  the  work  of  these  specialists  is  not  well  balanced  with  reference 
to  the  rest  of  the  curriculum,  that  it  does  not  support  the  work  in 
the  other  subjects,  and  in  general  fails  to  correlate.  The  idea  is 
not  to  dispense  with  departmental  work  in  these  subjects,  but  to 
have  the  departmental  work  done  by  teachers  whose  training  has 
given  them  a  balanced  view  of  the  curriculum.  The  prophecy  is 
made,  and  perhaps  with  truth,  that  the  work  in  the  special  subjects 
will  suffer,  but  this  loss  it  is  thought  will  be  more  than  compensated 
for  by  the  greater  correlation  that  will  result.  Needless  to  say,  a 
keen  fight  over  the  question  has  been  going  on  in  which  the  more 
or  less  creditable  war  cry  "The  elementary  schools  for  the  normal 
graduates"  has  been  adopted  by  the  advocates  of  the  reform. 
Along  with  the  change  goes  a  demand  for  better  training  in  the 
normal  schools  in  the  special  subjects.  Especially  is  this  the  case 
with  drawing,  whose  advocates  are  making  a  hard  fight  to  retain 
for  drawing  the  place  and  excellence  it  has  attained  in  the  schools. 

Aids  to  instruction. — Materials  that  are  used  only  in  the  school- 
room are  furnished  by  the  commune.  Books  and  materials  used 
only  or  partly  in  the  home  must  be  furnished  by  the  parents,  except 
in  case  of  poverty,  when  these  also  are  furnished  by  the  community. 
These  include  textbooks  in  the  various  subjects,  pens,  pencils,  and  the 
like. 

Many  communities  equip  their  schools  very  sparingly.  But  others, 
again,  especially  in  the  larger  cities,  furnish  practically  everything 
free.  Many  schoolrooms  have  splendid  collections  of  illustrative 
matter,  such  as  industrial,  geographic,  and  historical  pictures,  bo- 
tanical, zoological,  and  physiographic  illustrations,  and  a  wealth  of 
illustrative  material  for  observation  lessons  and  nature  study. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  the  work  of  the  Danish 
School  Museum,  which  has  as  one  of  its  objects  the  education  of 
teachers  and  school  officers  in  the  value  and  selection  of  school  mate- 
rials. It  aims  to  display  in  its  museum  in  Copenhagen  practically 
all  the  aids  to  instruction  that  are  on  the  market.  The  results  of 
these  efforts  are  evident  in  the  schoolrooms. 

Botanical  school  gardens. — In  connection  with  four  schools  in 
Copenhagen  are  maintained  botanical  school  gardens  in  which  are 
cultivated  such  type  plants  as  are  of  especial  importance  for  the 
instruction  in  botany.  Schools  that  are  not  too  far  distant  receive 
from  these  gardens  specimens  of  all  except  the  rarer  varieties.    In 


42  THE   EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF   DENMARK. 

one  garden  are  represented  75  plant  families,  with  from  200  to  300 
varieties.  After  the  1st  of  April  notices  are  sent  to  the  schools  about 
every  two  weeks  stating  what  plants  are  available  for  study.  The 
plants  are  cut  in  the  morning,  arranged  in  bunches,  labeled,  and  sent 
by  messengers  to  the  schools.  Some  schools  receive  specimens  of  all 
the  plants  included  in  the  course  of  study,  delivered  twice  a  week 
through  the  summer.  The  work  has  been  extended  rapidly  from 
supplying  material  for  150  hours  of  instruction  in  1905  to  10,000 
hours  in  1910.^ 

Examinations. — Formerly  examinations  were  semiannual  as  a  rule. 
Now  they  are  more  generally  held  annually,  usually  at  the  close  of 
the  winter  semester  in  April.  Examinations  for  promotion  and  finals 
are  not  very  formidable  in  the  lower  grades.  They  usually  consist  of 
a  composition  or  dictation  and  number  work  on  slates.  In  upper 
grades  the  written  part  is  somewhat  more  extensive.  The  oral  exam- 
inations are  held  in  the  schoolrooms  and  are  always  public.  The 
school  commission  must  be  represented  at  the  examination,  usually 
by  the  clerical  member,  and  there  must  also  be  a  censor  appointed  by 
the  commission.  All  children  must  be  present  at  the  examinations. 
Illegal  absence  is  punishable  by  a  fine  of  from  60  ore  to  2  kroner. 

The  oral  examinations  are  a  rather  interesting  procedure.  The 
pupils  are  seated  at  their  desks,  which  for  the  occasion  are  frequently 
moved  to  the  sides  of  the  room,  leaving  an  open  space  in  the  center. 
Here  at  a  table  are  seated  the  teacher  as  examiner,  and  the  censor. 
Visitors  are  present,  frequently  in  large  numbers,  notably  other 
teachers.  One  or  two  children  at  a  time  are  called  to  the  desk  and 
are  quizzed  individually  by  the  teacher  for  a  few  minutes.  Members 
of  the  school  commission,  especially  the  pastor,  may  take  a  hand  in 
the  questioning,  as  is  frequently  done.  Generally  the  pupils  do  not 
seem  to  mind  the  ordeal,  as  the  teacher  quizzes  in  a  manner  very 
similar  to  that  of  an  ordinary  review  lesson,  and  some  teachers  make 
an  effort  to  dispel  any  uneasiness  that  a  child  may  display. 

Sometimes,  after  four  or  five  pupils  have  been  examined,  pupils 
and  visitors  must  leave  the  room  in  order  that  the  examiner  and 
censor  may  confer  about  the  result  of  the  examination  while  the 
memory  of  each  child's  work  is  still  fresh.  The  pupils  then  reenter 
the  room  and  the  process  is  resumed. 

Each  child  must  thus  be  examined  in  every  subject  and  given  a 
grade  in  all  except  religion.  Theoretically  the  examination  is  held 
to  determine  the  question  of  the  pupil's  promotion;  but  this  is  de 
facto  decided  beforehand.  About  the  only  direct  effect  of  the  annual 
examination  is  a  share  in  fixing  the  pupil's  standing  in  the  various 
subjects,  and  thus  in  determining  his  place  in  the  class  roll  for  the 

^Annual  School  Report,  1910,  pp.  143-144. 


ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION.  43 

coming  year.  In  the  final  examinations  the  oral  part  plays  a  some- 
what more  significant  role. 

Promotions. — The  question  of  promotion  is  usually  decided  by  the 
class  teachers,  sometimes  in  conference  with  the  principal.  The 
pupil's  work  in  language  and  arithmetic  is  the  deciding  considera- 
tion. In  Copenhagen  a  child  who  can  not  be  promoted  with  his 
class  is  assigned  to  a  coaching  or  helping  class,  in  which  the  number 
of  pupils  to  a  teacher  is  only  one-half  as  large  as  in  the  regular 
classes.  In  these  helping  classes,  which  are  taught  in  the  same 
school  building  as  other  classes,  the  teachers  who  are  assigned  to  the 
duty  make  special  efforts  by  individual  assistance  and  attention  to 
help  these  backward  children  and  endeavor  to  bring  them  up  to 
grade. 

Of  pupils  in  such  classes  on  March  31,  1911,  a  median  of  9  per 
cent  were  promoted  to  a  higher  regular  class  and  65  per  cent  to  a 
higher  helping  class;  17  per  cent  were  restored  to  a  regular  cla'ss  of 
the  same  grade,  and  3  per  cent  were  retained  in  a  helping  class  of 
the  same  grade.  The  sj^stem  has,  however,  not  been  in  use  long 
enough  to  test  its  merits  thoroughly.  New  helping  classes  are  being 
established  each  year. 

For  children  who  are  on  the  border  line  of  weak-mindedness  there 
is  still  another  type  of  classes,  the  so-called  "  protecting "  classes. 
The  instruction  is  graded  through  four  classes.  Imbecile  children 
are,  of  course,  in  institutions. 

Medical  inspection. — Upon  entering  school  in  Copenhagen  all 
children  are  examined  by  school  doctors,  and  defects  discovered 
are  treated  by  these  or  other  doctors.  During  1910-11,  of  the  7,999 
pupils  entered  in  school  3,361  were  found  to  be  ailing.  Of  53,212 
children  in  the  various  classes,  6,679  were  presented  for  examination 
by  the  school  doctors.  There  are  20  doctors  devoting  a  part  of  the 
time  to  the  work.^ 

Free  meals. — In  Copenhagen  free  schools,  warm  dinners  are  served 
absolutely  free  to  all  children  through  the  three  months  of  January 
to  March.  Boys  are  served  one  day  and  girls  the  next,  so  that  each 
child  gets  three  dinners  a  week.  The  dinners  consist  of  two  courses. 
In  1909-10  there  were  served  to  10,032  children  289,735  meals,  cost- 
ing 48,056.94  crowns.  The  cost  per  meal  thus  amounts  to  15.41  ore. 
The  expense  is  borne  by  "  The  Association  for  Providing  Meals  for 
Children  in  Free  Schools."    No  free  meals  are  served  in  pay  schools.^ 

Continuation  schools. — Continuation  schools  are  practically  found 
only  in  the  form  of  evening  schools,  and  these,  strange  to  say,  are 
almost  exclusively  in  the  rural  districts,  and  are  purely  voluntary. 

1  Annual  School  Report,  1910,  p.  147. 
*  Op.  cit,  p.  148. 


44  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OP  DENMAKK. 

Of  cities  it  is  only  Copenhagen  and  Frederiksberg  that  make  a  seri- 
ous attempt  to  maintain  evening  continuation  schools.  In  rural  dis- 
tricts the  evening  schools  are  usually  taught  by  the  regular  public- 
school  teachers  through  the  winter  months  two  evenings  a  week,  with 
sessions  of  two  hours.  The  curriculum  consists  of  Danish,  writing, 
arithmetic,  natural  sciences,  and  history. 

In  Copenhagen  in  1909-10  there  were  10  evening  schools  with  a 
total  of  110  classes  and  an  enrollment  of  2,531,  of  whom  1,128  were 
men  and  1,403  women.^  The  schools  were  in  session  from  October 
to  April,  inclusive,  the  average  attendance  per  month  being  1,918. 
The  subjects  in  which  instruction  was  given  were  Danish,  arithmetic, 
writing,  bookkeeping,  mathematics,  stenography,  typewriting,  Eng- 
lish, German,  and  French. 

In  addition  to  the  above  subjects,  1,764  women  enrolled  for  in- 
struction in  housekeeping  and  cooking,  of  whom  1,156  were  grouped 
in  44  evening  classes  and  326  in  14  day  classes.  Classes  in  singing 
were  conducted  in  six  divisions,  five  for  women  and  one  for  men, 
with  an  enrollment  of  556.  The  course  closed  with  a  public  concert 
in  the  courthouse  hall  before  an  audience  of  2,500  people.  Most  of 
the  pupils  in  these  continuation  schools  are  below  18  years  of  age 
and  are  engaged  in  learning  a  trade. 

Private  schools. — Private  schools  play  a  somewhat  important  role 
in  elementary  education  in  Denmark.  In  rural  sections  some  200 
of  the  private  schools  are  maintained  by  the  Grundtvigian  religious 
movement.  In  cities,  on  the  other  hand,  the  reason  for  the  prevalence 
of  private  schools  is  to  be  found  chiefly  in  the  social  attitude,  which 
regards  a  private  school  of  select  clientele,  especially  if  it  is  costly, 
as  a  better  place  for  the  training  of  the  future  man  and  citizen  than 
a  public  school  in  which  the  child  rubs  elbows  with  a  complex  of 
humanity.  It  is  not  our  function  here  to  discuss  the  merits  of  the 
view,  but  merely  to  observe  that  the  attitude  is  responsible  for  the 
existence  of  a  number  of  schools  which,  to  say  the  least,  do  not  add 
to  the  educational  reputation  of  the  country. 

All  private  schools  in  which  children  of  school  age  are  taught  are 
subject,  .however,  to  essentially  the  same  regulations  as  the  public 
schools.  They  must  give  instruction  in  the  same  subjects  as  the 
public  schools,  and  the  pupils  must  be  examined  in  each  under  the 
censorship  of  the  school  commission.  If  found  to  be  not  as  far  ad- 
vanced at  the  various  ages  as  pupils  instructed  in  the  public  schools, 
children  may  be  taken  away  and  placed  in  public  schools.  This  is 
not  done,  however,  as  generally  as  efficiency  might  require. 

To  schools  that  give  evidence  of  satisfactory  excellence,  permis- 
sion is  given  to  have  the  examinations  held  in  their  own  buildings. 

»0p.  cit.,  p.  120. 


ELEMENTABY   EDUCATION.  45 

Very  rarely  pupils  in  private  schools  are  requested  to  participate  in 
the  regular  examinations  in  the  public  schools.  The  school  build- 
ings must  be  hygienic  and  properly  kept,  and  children  attending 
must  be  vaccinated.  Private  schools  must  furnish  all  the  statistical 
information  asked  for  in  regard  to  their  equipment  and  activities. 
Full  information  is  therefore  contained  in  the  State  reports  as  to  the 
attendance  in  the  schools,  teachers  and  their  training,  classification, 
curriculum,  size  of  classes,  school  buildings,  and  the  like.  It  is 
rather  remarkable,  however,  that  outside  of  Copenhagen  no  profes- 
sional certification  is  required  for  teachers  in  private  schools.  The 
slowly  but  steadily  decreasing  percentage  of  children  in  private 
schools  is  estimated  to  be  due  to  the  progressive  improvement  of  the 
public  schools. 

The  teaching  force. — There  are  in  general  two  classes  of  teachers 
in  the  Danish  elementary  schools,  the  permanently  and  the  non- 
permanently  appointed.  Teachers  are  civil  servants,  and  a  per- 
manent appointment  holds  for  life,  or  as  long  as  the  teacher  is 
capable  of  efficient  service.  Persons  holding  nonpermanent  appoint- 
ments are  such  as  are  either  serving  probationary  terms,  or  are 
engaged  to  fill  temporary  vacancies,  or  do  not  possess  the  qualifica- 
tions for  permanent  appointments.  Teachers  holding  permanent 
appointments  and  probationaries  are  paid  by  the  year;  all  others 
are  generally  paid  by  the  hour. 

In  the  rural  schools  28  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  women.^  The 
percentage  in  cities  ranges  from  40  to  48,  while  in  Copenhagen  57  per 
cent  of  the  teachers  are  women.  Men,  therefore,  play  a  much  more 
important  role  in  Danish  than  in  American  schools.  The  percentage 
of  women  teachers,  however,  is  on  the  increase. 

Training  of  teachers. — Teachers  are  trained  in  4  State  normal 
schools,  all  for  men,  and  in  13  State-aided  private  normal  schools,  of 
which  3  are  for  men,  4  for  women,  and  6  for  both  sexes.  The  normal 
schools  stand  in  immediate  relation  to  the  ministry,  whose  supervision 
of  them  is  performed  by  the  bishops  and  by  the  counselor  in  matters 
pertaining  to  elementary  education.  Principals  and  teachers  in 
State  normals  are  appointed  by  the  King.  They  are  recruited  usu- 
ally from  the  ranks  of  those  most  successful  and  experienced  teachers 
in  the  elementary  schools  who  have  received  advanced  training.  Be- 
fore receiving  ermanent  appointment  they  usually  serve  temporarily 
fcr  a  year  or  'wo. 

Private  normal  schools  that  measure  up  in  all  respects  to  the  re- 
quirements set  for  State  normals  are  recognized  by  the  State,  hold 
their  own  examinations,  are  supervised  in  the  same  way  as  State  nor- 
mals, and  receive  State  aid. 


^Dan.  Stat.  Folkeskolevsesenet,  1909,  p.  107. 


46 


THE    EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM    OF   DENMAKK. 


In  connection  with  all  schools  there  is  a  practice  school  which  may 
be  the  local  communal  school  or  one  established  especially  for  the 
normal.  The  practice  teaching  in  these  is  done  under  the  supervision 
of  the  principal  of  the  normal  school. 

In  order  to  be  admitted  to  the  lowest  class  of  any  normal  school  the 
candidate  (1)  must  be  18  years  of  age  by  the  close  of  the  calendar 
j'-ear ;  (2)  must  have  taught  under  the  direction  of  an  able  teacher  for 
a  period  of  one  year  and  present  evidence  from  the  school  commission 
or  the  teacher  concerned  that  he  possesses  desire  and  adaptability  for 
the  teaching  profession.  This  preliminary  practice  teaching  may  be 
done  in  public  schools,  in  a  private  school  with  approved  teachers,  or 
in  the  practice  department  of  a  normal  school.  (3)  He  must  present 
the  required  certificates  of  birth,  health,  character,  and  morals,  and 
(4)  must  have  passed  the  entrance  examinations,  which  require  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  elementary-school  subjects. 

In  some  schools  there  is  a  preparatory  class  in  which  candidates 
spend  a  year  in  order  to  fit  themselves  for  the  entrance  examinations. 
in  this  year  the  required  teaching  experience  may  also  be  gained,  as 
indicated  above. 

The  normal  course  is  three  years  in  length.  The  first  two  years  are 
devoted  mainly  to  liberal  studies,  while  the  third  year  is  intended  to 
give  professional  training. 

The  curriculum  of  the  Kanum  State  normal  school  is  fairly 
typical.^ 


Table  4.- 


-Suhjects  and  hours  per  tveek  in  the  Ranum  State  Normal  School, 
1910-11. 


Subjects. 


I  class. 


n  class. 


Ill  class. 


Gymnastics  and  physiology . 

Singing 

Drawing 

Writing 

Arithmetic 

Higher  mathematics 

Natural  science 

Nature  study 

Geography 

History 

Danish 

Bible  and  church  history . . . 
Bible  study  and  doctrine. .. 

Pedagogy 

Practice  teaching 


Total. 


.36 


Normal  training  for  preparatory-school  teachers  is  afforded  in  one 
State  and  three  State-aided  private  schools.  These  have  a  course  of 
from  one  to  one-and-a-half  years,  largely  of  a  practical  nature.  In 
order  to  enter,  candidates  must  be  between  18  and  30  years  of  age. 


^Annual  Report,  Banum  Statsseminarium,  1911,  p.  14. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  47 

of  good  health  and  character,  possess  ability  to  sing,  and  pass  the 
entrance  examination.  These  schools  are  all  for  women.  Courses 
for  the  training  of  winter  and  ambulatory  teachers  are  found  in  some 
people's  high  schools  and  are  aided  by  counties  and  the  State. 

State  teachers'  college. — For  the  advanced  training  of  teachers  in 
service  there  is  maintained  in  Copenhagen  a  splendidly  equipped 
State  teachers'  college,  with  an  excellent  staff  of  instructors.  The 
principal  course  extends  through  a  period  of  one  year  and  offers  ad- 
vanced instruction  in  any  subject  in  or  related  to  the  elementary 
curriculum.  Special  short  courses  are  offered  during  the  vacation 
months  in  a  wide  range  of  subjects.  The  college  is  much  sought  by 
teachers  desirous  of  advancement  and  serves  as  an  efficient  stimulus 
in  many  ways. 

Examination  and  certification. — The  teachers'  examinations,  which 
are  both  written  and  oral,  are  given  in  two  parts,  one  at  the  end  of 
the  second  year  and  the  other  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  of  the 
normal-school  course.  The  second  part  can  not  be  taken  earlier 
than  in  the  year  in  which  the  candidate  completes  his  twenty-first 
year,  but  must  be  taken  not  later  than  three  years  after  the  first  part. 
Two  of  these  years  may  be  spent  outside  of  the  normal  school,  in 
teaching. 

Under  special  circumstances  and  by  the  permission  of  the  minis- 
try, candidates  who  have  not  passed  through  a  normal  school  may 
take  the  final  teacher's  examinations,  provided  they  are  21  years  of 
age  and  fulfill  the  essential  requirements  for  entrance  to  a  normal 
school. 

When  a  candidate  has  passed  his  final  teacher's  examination,  he 
is  certificated  by  the  State  to  teach  in  any  elementary  school  in  the 
country. 

Appointment  of  teachers. — In  order  to  receive  permanent  appoint- 
ment in  a  city  system  or  in  a  one-teacher  rural  school,  a  teacher  must 
be  at  least  25  years  of  age,  be  in  good  health,  of  good  character,  be 
a  member  of  the  State  church,  have  passed  the  teacher's  final  exami- 
nation and  have  taught  sucessfully  for  two  years  after  passing  the 
final  examination.  For  temporary  appointments  the  requirements 
as  to  age,  education,  and  experience  are,  of  course,  not  so  high. 
Principals  in  city  schools  are  appointed  by  the  King,  upon  the 
recommendation  of  the  ministry.  Permanent  appointment  to 
nearly  all  other  positions,  both  in  city  and  rural  schools,  are  made  by 
the  district  school  board  upon  the  nomination  of  the  local  civil 
council.  When  a  vacancy  occurs  the  position  is  advertised  in  the 
official  organ  by  the  appointing  authority,  who  also  receives  applica- 
tions accompanied  by  the  proper  testimonials  as  to  fitness.  The 
applications  are  then  sent  to  the  local  civil  council,  who  after  con- 
3334**— 15 1 


48  THE   EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 

sultation  with  the  local  school  commission  nominate  first,  second, 
and  third  choice.  Of  these  nominees  the  appointing  authority  elects 
the  applicant  who  seems  best  fitted  for  the  position,  and  issues  to  him 
a  formal  call.  If  the  applicant  accepts  he  must  take  the  oath  of 
office  prescribed  for  servants  of  the  Government,  and  is  formally 
installed. 

In  many  cases  a  permanent  appointment  to  a  vacancy  does  not  take 
place  at  once,  but  is  preceded  by  a  period  of  probation  called  "  consti- 
tution." This  is  the  case  especially  in  cities,  but  probation  may  be 
dispensed  with  in  case  the  teacher  elect  has  held  a  permanent  posi- 
tion in  another  city  system.  In  rural  districts  "constitution"  is 
frequently  resorted  to  to  cover  cases  where  the  candidate  does  not 
possess  at  the  time  of  appointment  all  the  legal  requirements  as  to 
examination  or  teaching  experience.  He  may  then  be  "  constituted  " 
until  he  has  fulfilled  the  requirements,  when  permanent  appoint- 
ment may  take  place.  A  "constituted"  teacher  has  no  ipso  facto 
claim  to  permanent  appointment.  Such  action  requires  the  joint 
sanction  of  the  district  school  board  and  the  local  civil  ccmncil. 
"  Constitution "  does  not  ordinarily  last  more  than  two  years.  In 
Copenhagen,  however,  teachers  must  serve  probationary  terms  of 
three  years.  And  before  receiving  probationary  appointment,  the 
prospective  teacher  must  ordinarily  have  served  as  substitute  for 
periods  ranging  from  a  few  months  to  two  years.  A  list  of  qualified 
candidates  is  maintained  by  the  school  director,  out  of  which  the 
principals  choose  substitutes  when  needed.  Permanent  teachers  are 
appointed  for  the  city,  not  for  a  particular  school,  and  are  obliged  to 
serve  where  a  place  is  assigned  them. 

Teachers  and  the  church, — There  are  three  groups  of  church 
offices  which  devolve  upon  teachers  in  the  elementary  public  school: 
(1)  To  the  office  of  precentor  any  teacher  in  the  parish  may  be 
elected  by  the  local  council  and  is  under  obligation  to  serve.  In 
addition  to  leading  the  singing  of  the  regular  church  services,  which 
constitutes  his  chief  duty,  he  assists  the  pastor  with  ministerial  acts 
coming  within  the  regular  Sunday  services.  (2)  The  teacher  or  head 
teacher  in  a  village  where  a  church  is  situated  must,  ex  officio,  serve, 
as  the  pastor's  secretary  in  keeping  the  ministerial  records.  (3) 
Every  teacher  or  head  teacher  in  a  district  must,  ex  officio,  act  as  the 
pastor's  assistant  in  the  performance  of  ministerial  acts  in  the  dis- 
trict occurring  on  week  days  and  outside  of  the  regular  services  on 
Sundays.  He  is  also  to  assist  in  the  Sunday  service,  in  addition  to 
other  minor  duties,  by  offering  the  prescribed  prayers  at  the  opening 
and  close  of  the  service. 

In  cities  certain  of  the  teachers  are  appointed  by  the  district  school 
board  upon  nomination  by  the  local  council  to  perform  essertially 
the  same  duties  as  outlined  above. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  49 

(4)  In  addition  to  the  above  offices,  the  position  of  church  organist 
may  be  fulfilled  in  both  city  and  rural  districts  by  a  teacher  elected 
to  this  position,  but  there  is  no  compulsion  resting  upon  the  teacher 
to  accept  this  office,  unless  this  is  specifically  stated  in  his  call  to  the 
teaching  position.  It  is  almost  universally  the  case,  however,  that 
the  organist  position  is  held  by  a  teacher. 

Salaries  of  teachers, — Salaries  of  teachers  in  the  public  elementary 
schools  are  graded  according  to  the  nature  of  the  positions  and  length 
of  service.  There  are  two  scales  of  salaries  provided  by  law  for  city 
systems,  a  lower  and  a  higher  scale.  In  the  lower  scale  the  range  is 
from  a  basic  salary  of  1,500  kroner  a  year  to  2,800  kroner  after  20 
years  of  service.  The  corresponding  figures  in  the  higher  scale  are 
1,600  and  3,000  kroner.  Salaries  of  principals  range  from  3,000  to 
4,200  kroner  a  year.  The  question  as  to  which  scale  is  to  be  used  is 
determined  by  the  ministry  after  the  matter  has  been  considered  and 
reported  on  by  the  local  civil  council.  The  adoption  of  a  certain 
scale  fixes  the  minimum  salaries  for  that  system.  Nothing  prevents, 
however,  the  payment  of  higher  salaries  if  the  local  authorities  so 
decide.  In  Copenhagen  a  maximum  of  3,600  kroner  a  year  is  paid. 
For  principals  the  maximum  is  5,200  kroner. 

In  rural  schools,  first  and  one  teacher  positions  pay  (1)  a  mini- 
mum cash  salary  ranging  from  900  to  1,500  kroner  a  year,  besides 

(2)  free  residence,  fuel,  use  of  a  barn  large  enough  for  two  cows  and 
six  sheep,  fodder,  a  well  of  good  water,  and  a  garden  for  vegetables. 

(3)  In  addition  to  the  above,  there  may  be  an  income  from  church 
offices  amounting  to  220  kroner  or  more  a  year. 

The  above  figures  all  apply  to  men.  Women  are  paid,  on  the 
average,  25  per  cent  less  than  men. 

Compulsory  insurance. — Every  married  teacher  must  provide  for 
the  support  of  his  wife  in  the  event  of  his  death.  This  is  usually 
done  in  one  of  two  ways:  The  teacher  may  pay  annually  to  the 
State  Insurance  Institute  one-eighth  of  his  income.  In  the  event  of 
his  death  the  widow  receives  anually  one-eighth  of  the  income  which 
her  husband  was  earning  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Or,  if  he  chooses, 
the  teacher  may  buy  life  insurance  in  the  State  Insurance  Institute 
to  an  amount  which  must  be  at  least  fifteen  times  one-eighth  of  his 
annual  income.  The  policy  is  made  payable  to  the  ministry  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs  and  public  instruction,  and  the  resulting  funds 
are  administered  for  the  widow  by  this  department. 

Pensions. — After  the  age  of  30,  teachers  who  have  served  by 
permanent  appointment  for  five  years  are  entitled  to  a  pension, 
provided  they  are  dismissed  for  a  cause  for  which  they  are  not  respon- 
sible or  do  not  enter  upon  other  remunerative  work.    The  amount  of 


50  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 

the  pension  varies  with  length  of  service,  the  maximum,  tvzo-thirds 
of  the  average  salary  for  the  last  five  years,  being  reached  after  30 
years  of  service.  At  the  age  of  70  every  teacher  is  entitled  to  un- 
conditional release  with  pension.  At  this  age,  too,  he  may  be 
dismissed  by  reason  of  age,  even  against  his  will,  but  always  with 
pension.  In  addition  to  income  from  compulsory  insurance,  a  widow 
is  entitled  to  a  pension  amounting  to  one-eighth  of  her  husband's 
annual  income  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Support  of  elementary  education — The  State. — There  are  three 
administrative  units  involved  in  the  support  of  elementary  educa- 
tion— the  State,  the  county,  and  the  local  commune.  The  State 
derives  its  moneys  for  this  purpose  from  taxation,  there  being  no 
permanent  school  fund  for  elementary  education.  The  necessary 
appropriations  are  annually  made  by  Parliament.  An  idea  of  the 
participation  of  the  State  in  the  support  of  elementary  education 
may  be  derived  from  a  study  of  the  budget  for  a  certain  year.  The 
appropriation  for  1912-13  was  as  follows :  ^ 

State  Appropriation  fob  Elementary  Education  in  1912-13. 

Kroner. 

1.  For  salary  increases'  in  provincial  cities  and  rural  districts 4,100,000 

2.  To  county  school  funds,  for  payment  of  interest  and  principal  of 

loans  of  local  communes*  necessitated  by  erection  or  enlarging 

of  school  buildings 370,000 

3.  To  county  school  funds  annually  for  aid  to  needy  communities 

whose  school  expenses  are  disproportionately  large* 50,000 

4.  For  pensions,  the  State  paying  one-half  and  the  county  school 

funds  the  other  half 780,  000 

5.  Extra  appropriation  for  increases  in  pensions  and  for  support 

of   widows 45,000 

6.  To  the  city  of  Copenhagen,  a  grant  toward  the  expenses  of  its 

school    system 375, 000 

7.  Training  of  teachers  in  State  and  private  normal  schools  and 

in  special  courses 487,537 

8.  Advanced  training  of  teachers,  mainly  chargeable  to  elementary 

education 238,500 

iFinanslov  for  1912-13,  pp.  265-270. 

2  The  State  pays  all  such  salary  increases  as  are  provided  for  in  the  legal  salary 
schedules. 

8  Each  school  district  may  receive  one-half  the  amount  annually  expended  for  payment 
of  interest  and  principal,  but  not  to  exceed  450  kroner  a  year.  It  is  therefore  to  the 
advantage  of  the  commune  to  arrange  the  payments  in  increasing  amounts,  so  as  to  use 
each  year  the  full  amount  available  from  the  State.  The  State  will  not  give  aid  toward 
the  same  loan,  however,  for  a  longer  period  than  28  successive  years.  Application  for 
such  aid  Is  made  by  the  commune  to  the  ministry  through  the  district  school  board  and 
the  county  school  council. 

*The  grants  may  be  used  for  improvements,  special  types  of  education,  or  current 
expenses. 


ELEMENTAEY  EDUCATION.  51 

Kroner. 
9.  To  private  schools  in  rural  districts  * 110,  000 

10.  To  private  schools  in  provincial  cities,  distributed  on  essen- 

tially same  terms  as  above 45,  000 

11.  To  pension  fund  for  teachers  in  private  schools 4,  000 

12.  For    evening    continuation    schools    taught    by    public-school 

teachers 36, 000 

13.  For  continuation  schools  other  than  the  above 12,  000 

14.  Supervision  of  instruction,  chiefly  singing  and  gymnastics 17,  600 

15.  Miscellaneous : 

(a)  For  procuDing  aids  to  instruction 7,500 

(6)  Support  of  pupils'  libraries 13,  800 

(c)  Support  of  teachers'  libraries 5,  000 

(d)  Danish    School   Museum 10,400 

(e)  To  association  for  the  promotion  of  school  hygiene 300 

(/)  To  association  for  the  promotion  of  school  gardens 2,  200 

Total 6,  709,  837 

As  appears  from  the  above  budget,  the  State  is  guided  in  its  sup- 
port of  elementary  education  by  the  principles  of  equalizing  the 
burden  of  support  upon  the  various  communities,  aiding  needy  com- 
munities, encouraging  special  forms  of  education,  and  stimulating 
local  effort. 

County  school  funds. — The  county  school  fund  serves  as  an  admin- 
istrative medium  between  the  State  and  the  local  communities,  and 
is  intended  to  supplement  the  efforts  of  the  individual  school  dis- 
tricts within  the  county.  The  sources  of  the  county  school  funds  are 
chiefly  the  appropriations  from  the  State  referred  to.  Another  large 
source  is  taxes.  Their  amount  is  determined  by  the  needs  of  the 
school  fund  for  each  county,  and  are  levied  on  rural  communities 
and  provincial  cities  in  proportion  to  their  population.  Minor 
sources  are  incomes  from  productive  funds  and  fines. 

Out  of  the  county  school  funds  are  disbursed  the  amounts  received 
from  the  State,  for  which  the  school  funds'  administration  acts 
merely  as  disbursing  agent,  such  as  for  building  loans,  salary  in- 
creases, and  the  like.  One-half  the  amount  of  pensions  and  special 
maintenance  grants  to  teachers  within  the  county  are  also  paid  from 
the  county  funds.  In  addition  there  are  grants  toward  the  part  pay- 
ment of  substitutes  for  teachers  who  by  reason  of  illness  or  other 
adequate  cause  are  unable  to  serve  for  a  time,  grants  to  such  teachers 
themselves  who  find  themselves  in  severe  financial  distress,  to  needy 
communities,  and  for  special  activities,  such  as  evening  schools.    In 

»  Of  the  sum  distributed  to  private  schools,  100,000  kroner  are  distributed  to  such 
schools  as  in  the  opinion  of  the  school  commission  rank  on  a  par  with  the  public  schools 
and  have  been  in  successful  operation  for  at  least  one  year.  The  basis  of  distribution  is 
the  average  enrollment  of  children  of  school  age.  The  grant  per  pupil  must  not  exceed 
12  kroner.  The  balance,  10,000  crowns,  is  applied  according  to  the  discretion  of  the 
ministry.     Applications  are  made  to  the  ministry  through  the  district  school  board. 


62  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMAKK. 

some  of  the  above  cases  the  grants  are  required  as  a  condition  for 
State  aid  to  the  same  object. 

Local  support. — Local  communities  derive  their  school  moneys 
partly  from  grants  from  State  and  county,  regular  and  special,  as 
indicated  above. 

In  rural  districts  fuel  and  forage  are  furnished  by  landowners, 
in  proportion  to  the  taxed  valuation  of  their  property,  either  in 
natura  or,  by  common  agreement,  in  cash,  or  the  amount  may  be 
included  as  a  part  of  the  regular  taxes.  In  some  communities  there 
is  income  from  school  land,  from  tuition  in  schools  giving  advanced 
instruction,  tuition  of  pupils  from  other  communes,  fines  for  illegal 
absence,  voluntary  gifts,  and  the  like.  Other  moneys  needed  are 
obtained  from  the  funds  of  the  commune,  which  are  derived  chiefly 
from  direct  taxation. 

The  local  community  assumes  all  expenses  not  otherwise  provided 
for,  such  as  erection,  equipment,  and  maintenance  of  school  build- 
ings, with  playgrounds,  gymnasium,  and  residence  with  garden 
for  teacher;  all  basic  salaries  of  permanent  teachers,  salaries  of  all 
other  teachers,  except  as  elsewhere  noted,  and  salaries  for  church 
offices;  for  school  materials  and  aids  to  instruction  used  by  all  chil- 
dren; books  and  materials  for  poor  children,  teachers'  and  pupils' 
libraries,  and  teachers'  administrative  expenses. 

Local  communities  grant  aid  to  private  schools,  which  supple- 
ment the  public  school  system  and  thus  reduce  the  burden  of  support. 
A  grant  of  6  kroner  per  pupil  may  be  made  to  State-aided  private 
schools,  without  sanction  of  the  county  civil  council.  Beyond  that 
amount  such  sanction  is  required. 

Many  communities  make  large  expenditures  for  evening  and  cx)n- 
tinuation  schools  and  for  other  special  forms  of  education.  This  is 
largely  the  result  of  the  policy  of  the  State  in  making  its  grants 
dependent  upon  the  efforts  put  forth  by  the  local  community. 

The  total  average  cost  of  Danish  elementary  education  per  en- 
rolled child  is  $13.45  a  year.^  Exactly  comparable  statistics  for  the 
United  States  are  not  available.  The  nearest  approach  is  the  average 
expenditure  per  capita  of  average  attendance  in  common  school  sys- 
tems. For  the  United  States  as  a  whole  this  figure  is  $34.71  per 
child.  Four  States  spend  less  than  Denmark,  two  about  an  equal 
amount,  while  the  rest  spend  more.  The  figure  for  Minnesota  is 
$45.96,  while  in  Massachusetts  $50.39  are  expended  per  child.^  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  these  figures  are  subject  to  two 
main  corrections.  In  the  first  place,  the  basis  of  average  cost  in 
Denmark  is  enrollment,  while  the  above  figures  for  the  United  States 

1  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.  Report,  1912,  vol.  2,  p.  657. 
« Idem,  p.  18. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION.  53 

are  based  on  average  attendance.  This  difference  tends  to  lower  the 
average  cost  for  Denmark  as  compared  with  the  United  States. 
Furthermore,  the  purchasing  power  of  a  dollar  is  considerably 
greater  in  Denmark  than  in  the  United  States,  perhaps  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  more. 


Chapter  IV. 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

Definition. — As  previously  noted,  the  term  secondary  education  is 
used  in  this  study  to  cover  the  instruction  normally  given  in  three 
types  of  schools,  middle  school  of  four  years,  for  children  from  11 
to  14  years  of  age.  Real  course  of  one  year,  from  15  to  16,  and  Gym- 
nasium of  three  years,  15  to  18,  with  its  three  courses,  classical,  mod- 
ern language,  and  mathematical-scientific.  Many  secondary  schools 
have  preparatory  classes  covering  the  five  years  of  school  life  pre- 
ceding the  middle  school,  but  such  classes  are  regarded  in  this  study 
as  a  part  of  the  system  of  elementary  education. 

Ownership  and  control. — Secondary  schools  are  of  three  kinds  as 
to  ownership  and  control.  State,  communal,  and  private.  The  State 
schools,  14J[n  number,^  are  for  the  most  part  on  cathedral  school 
foundations,  are  owned  by  the  State  and  administered  directly 
through  the  ministry  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  public  instruction. 
Communal  schools,  which  number  48,  are  established  and  adminis- 
tered as  part  of  the  communal  school  systems.  Private  schools, 
numbering  141,  are  the  most  numerous  of  all.  Many  factors  con- 
tribute to  give  private  schools  such  an  important  role  in  secondary 
education  in  Denmark.  To  begin  with,  there  is  the  historic  origin. 
Private  schools  sprang  up  before  the  State  or  communes  made  ade- 
quate provision  for  secondary  education.  The  idea  prevailed  that 
the  expense  of  higher  education  ought  properly  to  fall  upon  the 
parents  whose  children  were  to  receive  the  benefits  of  such  education, 
and  not  upon  the  public  at  large.  When  once  established,  it  is  much 
more  economical  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Government  to  encourage 
private  schools  to  continue  to  do  their  work  than  to  take  them  over 
as  State  institutions.  Therefore  their  continuance  is  encouraged  by 
State  aid,  and  the  privilege  of  holding  their  own  examinations. 

There  is,  furthermore,  a  well-intrenched  belief  in  Denmark  that 
private  initiative  in  education  is  highly  beneficial  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation itself.  New  ideas  and  educational  experimentation  prosper  in 
private  schools  in  a  way  that  is  scarcely  possible  in  a  State  school 

^Asmussen,  Meddelelser  angaaende  de  hojere  almeuskoler,  1909-10,  Tables  1-9. 


54  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM    OF   DENMARK. 

controlled  according  to  legislative  enactments  and  governed  by  a 
central  administrative  bureau.  This  is  not  mere  theory  either,  for 
some  private  schools  have  done  much  to  break  new  paths  in  the  edu- 
cational field.  The  right  of  educating  their  children  privately  is  also 
highly  prized  by  the  Danes.  It  is  one  of  the  fields  of  activity  in 
which  private  judgment,  religious  conviction,  and  cultural  view- 
point like  to  operate  independently  and  unhampered.  Perhaps  a 
more  powerful  factor  than  any  of  the  above  in  some  localities  is  the 
social  attitude  which  finds  in  the  private  school  the  proper  en- 
vironment for  higher  education,  just  because  it  is  not  public. 

Supe7'vision. — Reference  has  been  made  above  to  the  organization 
of  the  department  of  education  at  the  central  office,  whereby  second- 
ary education  classifies  under  the  second  of  the  two  departments. 
The  inspection  and  supervision  of  secondary  schools  is  accomplished 
chiefly  through  two  inspectors,  one  for  middle  and  Real  schools, 
and  one  for  the  complete  secondary  schools,  i.  e.,  those  which  have 
a  gymnasium.  The  later  inspector  is,  next  to  the  ministry,  at  the 
head  of  the  secondary  school  system. 

He  visits  all  schools.  State,  communal,  and  private,  in  order  to 
observe  their  condition  and  the  quality  of  their  work.^  He  may  on 
his  own  responsibility  advise  rectors  or  administrators  of  the  schools, 
who  are  to  give  him  all  needful  assistance  and  information  for  the 
furtherance  of  his  work.  He  may  make  recommendation  to  the  min- 
istry touching  the  entire  status  of  a  school  or  special  matters  therein, 
and  may  recommend  new  arrangements  in  the  secondary  field.  He 
supervises  the  arrangement  and  holding  of  all  State  examinations 
according  to  the  legal  directions.  He  is  required  to  advise  the  min- 
istry in  all  matters  pertaining  to  secondary  education  that  are  sub- 
mitted to  him,  such  as  courses  of  study,  appointment,  promotion,  and 
dismissal  of  teachers,  dispensations  from  rules,  and  the  like.  He  is 
also  in  charge  of  the  professional  training  of  secondary  teachers.  In 
regard  to  this  function  more  will  be  said  below. 

Statistics' of  schools  and  attendance. — In  1909-10  there  were  204 
schools,  of  which  44  were  complete  secondary  schools,  including  all 
of  the  14  State  schools,  besides  5  communal  and  25  private  schools.^ 

Of  the  160  schools  without  gymnasium,  43  were  communal  and  117 
private.  Real  courses  were  found  in  147  schools.  Of  all  secondary 
schools,  28  were  for  boys,  31  for  girls,  and  145  coeducational. 

The  total  attendance  of  students  in  the  secondary  schools  in  1909-10 
was  22,968,  distributed  as  the  following  table  indicates :  ^ 

1  Ministerial  Instruction,  Sept.  8,  1906. 
•Asmussen,  op.  cit.,  ibid. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 
Table  5. — Attendance  in  Danish  secondary  schools,  1909-10, 


65 


Middle 
school. 

Real 
course. 

Gym- 
nasium. 

Former 
classifica- 
tion.! 

Total. 

10,052 
7,204 

1,061 
821 

1,649 
454 

1,185 
542 

13,947 

Girls 

9,021 

Total         

17,256 

1,882 

2,103 

1,727 

22,968 

J  The  caption  "Former  classiflcation"  refers  to  students  in  Real  schools  of  the  old  type,  which  had  not 
entirely  disappeared  at  the  time  these  statistics  were  gathered. 

Life  in  the  schools. — The  school  year  in  State  and  private  secondary 
schools  generally  begins  in  the  latter  part  of  August  or  the  first  part 
of  September  and  closes  in  June  or  early  part  of  July.  Communal 
schools  begin  and  close  with  the  common  schools  in  April  or  May. 
Normally,  vacations  and  holidays,  not  including  Sundays,  must  not 
exceed  63  days  in  the  year. 

The  school  day  usually  consists  of  6  hours,  50  minutes  in  length, 
with  a  10-minute  intermission  after  each.  In  some  schools  there  is 
one  continuous  session  from  about  8  or  9  a.  m.  to  2  or  3  p.  m.,  with  an 
intermission  of  20  minutes  for  lunch,  while  in  other  schools  there 
are  two  sessions,  with  a  lunch  period  of  an  hour  or  more.  School 
extends  through  six  days  in  the  week ;  a  free  day  is  granted,  however, 
once  a  month  or  fortnightly  in  case  no  fixed  holiday  occurs  within 
that  period. 

Most  of  the  schools  are  day  schools.  Only  two  of  the  State 
schools — Soro  and  Herlufsholm — are  boarding  schools,  and  these  are 
for  boys.  The  school  at  Soro  is  famous  for  its  rich  endowment.  It 
was  founded  in  1586  with  funds  from  the  cloister  at  Soro,  and  later, 
in  1747,  was  endowed  by  the  entire  baronial  estate  of  the  great  Dano- 
Norwegian  dramatist,  Ludvig  Holberg.  At  various  times  through 
its  history  it  has  had  united  with  it  a  knights'  academy  {Ridderaha- 
demie),  which,  however,  did  not  minister  to  its  success  as  an  educa- 
tional institution.  It  is  notable  for  the 'many  men  prominent  in 
Danish  history  and  literature  which  have  studied  within  its  walls,  as 
also  by  the  dream  which  Bishop  Grundtvig  cherished  for  it — a  trans- 
formation into  a  people's  high  school.  The  school  has  a  most  beauti- 
ful location  on  the  banks  of  the  little  Lake  Soro  and  is  splendidly 
furnished  with  buildings  and  equipment  for  about  300  boys.  The 
surplus  income  from  its  endowment  is  used  by  the  State  for  other 
educational  purposes.  Aside  from  the  two  State  boarding  schools, 
there  is  a  small  number  of  private  schools  in  which  the  students  re- 
side, but  many  of  these  schools  also  have  day  pupils. 

Life  in  the  boarding  schools  is  much  like  that  in  American  institu- 
tions of  the  same  type,  except  that  the  school  day  is  much  longer  and 
sports  are  not  so  prevalent.    Association  football,  tennis,  and  a  kind 


56 


THE   EDUCATIOITAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMARK. 


of  baseball  are  played,  and  a  little  rowing  indulged  in.  In  the  day 
schools  there  is  not  much  of  any  school  life.  There  are  no  student 
organizations  to  speak  of.  A  social  gathering  of  students  and 
teachers  may  take  place  once  or  twice  a  year.  Sports,  such  as  foot- 
ball and  "long  ball,"  are  being  encouraged,  but  do  not  seem  to  have 
taken  a  hold  to  any  marked  extent.  One  must  bear  in  mind,  of 
course,  that  the  students  in  these  schools  are  very  young,  finishing  the 
Gymnasium  at  about  the  same  age  that  the  American  youth  com- 
pletes the  high  school,  and  that  the  last  three  years  are  occupied  with 
serious  study  preparatory  to  a  very  severe  State  examination. 

One  gets  the  impression  that  there  is  not  much  joyousness  in  the 
secondary  school  life  of  the  Danish  youth,  except  that  which  comes 
from  the  consciousness  of  work  well  done.  The  boy  or  girl  is  kept 
pretty  busy  six  days  in  the  week  with  six  recitations  a  day  and 
preparation  for  the  next  day's  tasks.  It  is  not  surprising  that  there 
is  little  time  or  energy  left  for  sports  or  other  supplementary  activi- 
ties. These  come  in  their  own  fashion  in  the  first  years  at  the  uni- 
versity, for  those  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  reach  that  stage. 

CuTTiGula:  The  middle  school. — Secondary  curricula  are  deter- 
mined in  broad  outline  by  the  law  of  1903.  A  detailed  program  is 
fixed  by  the  department  of  education  for  State  schools  and  serves 
consequently  as  a  guide  for  the  instruction  also  in  communal  and 
private  schools.  While  considerable  latitude  is  allow^ed  even  State 
schools  in  modifying  details  of  the  course  of  study  to  meet  local 
conditions,  there  is  large  uniformity  in  the  curricula  of  the  schools 
throughout  the  county.  The  following  is  the  program  outlined  by 
the  ministry  for  middle  schools :  ^ 

Table  6. — Weelcly  program,  Danish  middle  schools. 


Subjects. 

I  class. 

II  class. 

III  class. 

IV  class. 

Total. 

Religion 

2 
5 
6 

2 
4 
3 
5 
2 
2 
2 
2 
5 
1 
2 

2 
4 
3 
4 
3 
2 
2 
2 
6 
1 
1 

1 

5 
3 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
7 

1 

7 

18 

English 

15 

13 

History       

3 
2 
2 
2 
4 
2 
2 

10 

Geography                                     

8 

8 

Sciences         

8 

22 

Writing 

5 

Drawing              

6 

Total 

30 

30 

30 

30 

120 

4 
2 

4 
2 

4 
1 

4 

Singing                                                                .  ..•••. 

Remarks  on  the  curriculum. — The  instruction  in  religion  is  based 
on  Bible  history  and  aims  to  familiarize  the  students  with  the  Bible 

*Glahn,  Lov  om  hojere  Almenskoler  m.  m.,  p.  66. 


SECONDARY   EDUCATION.  57 

itself  and  its  essential  teachings,  with  a  view  to  developing  the  child's 
religious  nature  and  making  the  truths  function  in  the  child's  life.^ 
Danish  includes  a  thorough  training  in  oral  and  written  expression 
and  grammar,  together  with  the  study  of  a  considerable  range  of 
Danish  and  Norse  and  some  Swedish  literature. 

German  may  be  taken  up  before  English  if  the  local  authorities  so 
choose.  The  State  schools  are  equally  divided  on  English  and  Ger- 
man as  the  beginning  language.^  The  aim  in  modern  language  in- 
struction is  correct  pronunciation,  ability  to  read  and  understand 
ordinary  prose  at  sight,  and  to  form  grammatically  correct  sentences. 
A  speaking  knowledge  of  the  language  is  a  part  of  the  ultimate  pur- 
pose striven  for.  The  direct  method  is  used  throughout.  From  the 
first  day  on  the  language  being  learned  is  used  to  the  greatest  possible 
extent  by  the  teacher  as  the  medium  of  instruction.  Some  of  the  very 
best  work  done  in  Danish  schools  is  seen  in  the  modern  language  in- 
struction. Teachers  go  abroad  in  large  numbers  to  obtain  more  per- 
fect mastery  of  their  methods.  Some  idea  of  the  result  of  the  work 
in  middle  schools  may  be  obtained  from  one  feature  of  the  final  ex- 
amination in  a  modern  language.  The  examinee  is  given  a  selection 
in  the  foreign  language  about  half  a  page  in  length  to  read  aloud. 
After  one  reading  he  closes  the  book  and  by  the  use  of  the  foreign 
language  reproduces  freely  the  content  of  the  selection. 

Instruction  in  history  embraces  a  general  view  of  the  world's 
progress.  Particular  emphasis  is  placed  on  modern  and  Danish  his- 
tory. Geography  is  regarded  as  a  very  important  subject  and  extends 
through  the  course. 

Nature  study  includes  the  elements  of  zoology  and  botany.  Speci- 
mens are  collected  and  studied  in  type  groupings.  Physics  constitutes 
the  major  part  of  the  work  in  science.  Chemistry  receives  minor  at- 
tention. Mathematics  embraces  arithmetic,  elementary  algebra,  and 
portions  of  plane  geometry. 

The  instruction  in  writing  aims  at  a  neat  and  legible  hand.  In 
drawing,  the  correct  representation  of  an  object  by  the  free-hand 
method  is  aimed  at  by  graded  exercises. 

Gymnastics  and  singing  are  required,  but  are  regarded  more  as 
helpful  diversions  than  as  parts  of  the  accredited  course. 

In  some  schools,  as  modifications  of  the  above  program,  are  found 
needlework  and  domestic  science  for  girls  and  sloyd  for  boys.  Latin 
and  French  are  also  optional  subjects.  All  the  State  schools  offer 
Latin  four  hours  a  week  the  last  year.  French  in  like  amount  is 
found  in  four  State  schools.  The  introduction  of  these  subjects 
sometimes  necessitates  a  reduction  in  the  time  devoted  to  other  sub- 

iThe  scope  of  this  study  does  not  permit  of  a  full  discussion  of  the  curricula  and 
methods  of  the  secondary  schools.  Remarks  are  offered  merely  to  make  the  time-table 
intelligible  or  to  call  attention  to  characteristic  features. 

*Asmussen,  op.  cit.,  pp.  104-106. 


58 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 


jects.    In  other  cases  the  brighter  students  are  permitted  to  carry  one 
of  these  subjects  in  addition  to  the  full  course. 

Real  course. — The  Real  course  is  a  sort  of  finishing  year  for  such 
students  as  can  not  take  the  full  Gymnasium  course.  These  Real 
courses  are  not  operated  in  separate  institutions,  but  are  found  in  the 
complete  secondary  schools  and  are  attached  to  many  middle  schools. 
There  is  no  fixed  schedule  for  the  work  of  this  Real  year,  the  local 
needs  and  the  requirements  of  the  students  serving  largely  to  fix  its 
character.^  The  following  program,  suggested  by  the  department, 
is  a  fair  type  of  the  work  done  in  these  courses : 

Weekly  program — Real  course. 

Hours. 

Danish 4 

Two  modern  languages 8 

Practical  mathematics 4 

History  and  geography 4 

Sciences 4 

Electives 6 

Gymnastics 4 

The  electives  may  be  chosen  from  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  such  as: 
Religion,  a  third  modern  language,  Latin,  geometry,  bookkeeping, 
stenography,  drawing,  sloyd,  and  singing.  Special  electives  for  girls 
are  practical  accounting,  needlework,  and  domestic  science.  If  this 
course  is  to  close  a  young  person's  school  career,  he  may,  by  a  proper 
combination  of  subjects,  fit  himself  for  a  business,  governmental,  or 
other  vocational  position. 

Gymnasium — Courses. — Entering  the  gymnasium  the  student  has  a 
choice  of  three  courses — the  classical,  modern  language,  and  mathe- 
matical-scientific— each  three  years  in  length.  The  popularity  of  the 
various  courses  is  indicated  by  the  attendance.^  The  pro-modern 
tendency  is  clearly  evidenced  by  the  large  percentage  of  attendance 
in  the  modern-language  course  and  the  very  small  percentage  in  the 
classical  department.  Only  eight  State  schools  and  four  private 
schools  maintain  the  classical  course.  Practically  all  schools — State, 
communal,  and  private — maintain  the  modern-language  and  the 
mathematical-scientific  courses. 

Table  7. — DistriMtion  of  students  in  Danish  gymnasium  courses,  1909-10. 


Course. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Percent- 
age. 

Classical                             

178 
806 
665 

89 
312 
53 

267 

1,118 

718 

13 

Mnrtom  InTumfliTO ........... 

53 

Mathematical  scientific 

34 

1  Glahn,  op.  cit.,  p.  142. 


^Asmussen,  op.  cit,  Table  9. 


SECONDAEY  EDUCATION. 


59 


Program, — As  in  the  case  of  middle  schools,  the  State  department 
of  education  outlines  the  program  of  studies  also  for  the  Gymnasia. 
The  programs  as  suggested  by  the  department  ^  and  modified  to  some 
extent  by  practice  are  indicated  in  the  subjoined  table: 

Table  8. — Weehly  programs,  Danish  Gymnasia, 


Subjects. 

I  class.- 
AU  three 
courses. 

n  class.— 
All  three 
courses. 

m  class.— 
All  three 
courses. 

Religion                 

1 
4 
4 
3 
2 
4 

1 
4 
4 
3 
2 
4 

I 

Danish , 

4 

French      

4 

History 

4 

Music - 

2 

Gymnastics 

4 

I  class. 

II  class. 

m  class. 

Subjects. 

Clas- 
sical. 

Mod- 
em. 

Mathe- 

matical- 

scien- 

tific. 

Clas- 
sical. 

Mod- 
em. 

Mathe- 

matical- 

scien- 

tific. 

Clas- 
sical. 

Mod- 
em. 

Mathe- 

matical- 

scien- 

tific. 

English 

2 

5 
4 
4 

2 

2 

5 
4 

4 

2 

2 

6 
4 
3 

2 

German..      -  ............... 

Latin 

6 
6 

I 

1 



5 
6 

} i 

Greek 

ArchsBolosry                 .... 

1 
2 
2 

{  i 

1 

2 
2 

{  ! 

1 
2 
2 

1 

Geography  and  nature  study. 
Sciences         

}     I 

i     • 

Total        

36 

36 

36 

36 

.^fi 

36 

36 

:iR 

36 

Some  very  general  remarks  on  the  programs  must  suffice.  It  will 
be  noted  that  all  the  courses  have  much  in  common.  There  is  special- 
ization, to  be  sure,  but  the  courses  are  not  unbalanced. 

The  names  of  the  courses  indicate  the  major  emphasis  in  each  case. 
As  to  languages,  Greek  is  offered  only  in  the  classical  course,  and 
Latin  is  not  offered  in  the  mathematical-scientific  course.  French 
is  common  to  all  courses.  In  the  modern-language  course  both  Eng- 
lish and  German  are  studied,  the  one  or  the  other  being  selected  as 
major.  In  the  other  two  courses  only  one  of  these  two  languages 
can  be  taken  up,  the  selection  being  made  by  each  school.  But  it  has 
been  noted  that  both  English  and  German  are  studied  in  the  middle 
school.  The  general  statement  may  therefore  be  made  that  a  person 
may  graduate  from  the  Danish  Gymnasium  and  thus  become  a 
student  in  the  European  sense  without  having  studied  either  Latin 
or  Greek,  but  he  must  have  studied  three  modern  languages. 

Sciences  and  mathematics  have  a  place  also  in  the  language  courses, 
but  constitute  the  major  subject  in  the  mathematical-scientific  course. 
In  this  course  these  subjects  embrace  geography;   geology;   min- 

»Glalm,  op.  cit,  p.  198. 


60  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMAKK. 

eralogy ;  biology ;  human  physiology ;  astronomy ;  physics ;  inorganic, 
organic,  and  physical  chemistry ;  algebra ;  trigonometry ;  plane,  solid, 
and  analytical  geometry. 

The  work  in  archselogy  in  the  classical  course  is  fairly  well  in- 
dicated by  the  name  itself,  but  in  the  modern  language  and  mathe- 
matical-scientific courses,  where  one  hour  a  week  throughout  the 
three  years  is  devoted  to  it,  the  scope  of  the  work  is  much  broader 
than  the  term  indicates.  In  these  courses  the  subject  is  calculated  to 
give  a  knowledge  of  classical  civilization  and  culture  somewhat  com- 
mensurate with  that  obtained  from  study  of  the  classics  in  the  origi- 
nal. Selected  portions  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature  are  read  in 
translation  and  a  study  made  of  artistic  and  other  monuments  of  the 
ancient  world.  Thus  these  courses,  while  so  strictly  modern,  are 
endeavoring  to  transmit  also  some  of  the  best  of  our  inheritance  from 
classic  culture. 

Examinations. — Examinations  in  the  secondary  schools  are  held 
at  the  close  of  each  school  year,  and  a  final  examination  at  the  end 
of  each  course.  All  examinations  consist  of  two  parts,  a  written  and 
an  oral  test.  Final  examinations  are  all  conducted  by  the  State, 
through  approved  representatives,  the  question  for  the  written  tests 
being  prepared  by  the  ministry.  All  oral  examinations  are  public. 
A  censor  appointed  or  approved  by  the  State  is  present  at  each  ex- 
amination, and  his  grade  is  averaged  with  that  given  by  the  ex- 
aminer in  each  subject.  The  grades  range  from  0  to  6,  the  higher 
numbers  indicating  the  better  standing.  The  average  of  the  averages 
of  examination  and  class  marks  in  all  subjects  constitutes  the  final 
grade.  An  average  of  3.50  is  required  to  pass.  All  standings,  with 
names  of  examinees,  are  published  in  the  annual  bulletins  of  the 
schools  and  in  the  State  reports.  From  this  practice  may  be  gained 
some  idea  of  the  importance  attached  to  examinations  in  Denmark. 
Schools  and  professions  are  graded  in  the  minds  of  the  people  ac- 
cording to  the  severity  of  the  examinations  which  they  require,  and 
individuals  are  more  or  less  marked  for  life  by  the  published  reports 
of  their  school  examinations. 

Privileges. — The  middle-school  examinations,  besides  admitting  to 
the  real  course  and  gymnasium,  is  considered  as  fitting  for  an  ordi- 
nary industrial  or  business  career.  The  Real  examination  fits  for 
certain  governmental  positions,  such  as  postal  and  railway  service, 
certain  better  business  positions,  and  admits  to  certain  technical 
schools.  The  student  examination,  with  which  the  gymnasium  closes, 
admits  to  all  courses  at  the  university  and  to  certain  of  the  higher 
business  and  governmental  positions. 

Girls'^  examination. — The  secondary  scheme  of  education,  as 
adopted  in  1903  and  outlined  in  this  study,  seems  not  to  have  proved 
entirely  satisfactory  for  girls.    The  higher  girls'  schools,  which  were 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION.  61 

in  a  sense  displaced  by  the  adoption  of  the  present  system,  carried 
the  instruction  up  to  a  leaving  examination  at  17  years  of  age.  The 
examination  in  the  present  system  corresponding  most  nearly  to  the 
former  leaving  examination  of  the  girls'  schools  is  the  Real  examina- 
tion, but  this  comes  at  16  years  of  age,  and  thus  cuts  off  the  last  year 
of  the  former  girls'  schools.  To  meet  the  objection  raised  on  this 
ground,  there  was  introduced  a  special  girls'  examination  at  the  age 
of  17  as  a  modification  of  the  present  system.  In  Copenhagen,  where 
the  higher  girls'  schools  draw  their  students  largely  from  well-to-do 
homes,  the  girls  stay  in  school  longer,  and  the  postponement  of  the 
final  examination  to  the  age  of  17  is  very  common.  Outside  of  Copen- 
hagen, however,  the  plan  of  1903  has  met  with  general  favor.  Girls' 
schools  in  the  provincial  cities  have  found  great  difficulty  in  holding 
the  girls  who  do  not  expect  to  go  to  the  university  longer  than  until 
the  age  of  16.  The  Real  examination  of  the  present  system,  there- 
fore, satisfies  their  needs  admirably,  and  as  a  result  the  girls'  schools 
outside  of  Copenhagen  are  being  shaped  more  and  more  by  the 
present  system  of  secondary  education. 

Teachers  and  salaries. — There  are  three  classes  of  permanently  ap- 
pointed teachers  in  the  secondary  schools — the  head  masters,  called 
rektors^  regular  teachers,  and  adjuncts.  In  State  schools,  teachers 
in  these  positions  begin  with  a  basic  salary  of  4,800,  3,600,  and  2,400 
kroner,  respectively.  Increases  come  every  four  years,  until  the 
salaries  reach,  respectively,  5,600,  4,800,  and  4,000  kroner.  Rektors 
receive,  in  addition,  free  residence  or  equivalent.  Before  becoming  an 
adjunct  teacher,  the  candidate  must  have  served  a  probationary  term 
of  one  or  two  years.^ 

Besides  the  above  classes  of  teachers  there  are  in  some  schools  tem- 
porarily appointed  teachers,  who  are  paid  by  the  hour.  A  teacher 
of  gymnastics  is  found  in  every  school,  and  there  is  also  a  personage 
called  pedel^i  who  serves  as  a  sort  of  administrative  secretary. 

Training  of  secondary  teachers. — Since  1908  no  person  can  become 
a  teacher  in  a  complete  secondary  school  who  does  not  pass  the  State 
examination  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching.  Preparation  for 
this  examination  is  normally  afforded  in  the  pedagogical  seminary 
established  in  1906  and  maintained  by  the  State.  Before  entering 
upon  the  work  of  this  seminary,  the  candidate  must,  as  a  rule,  hold 
a  degree  from  the  university.  The  seminary  embraces  a  half  year  of 
theory  and  another  half  year  of  practice.  The  theoretical  instruction 
includes:  The  history  and  principles  of  education  and  methods  of 
teaching;  a  study  of  the  development  and  present  organization  of 
Danish  education;  school  hygiene,  including  the  physiology  and 
hygiene  of  adolescence.    Professors  of  university  rank  are  in  charge 

1  Glahn,  De  til  om  hojere  Almenskoler  horende  Retsregler,  II  Del.,  pp.  83-84. 


62  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF   DENMAKK. 

of  the  instruction.  The  examination  covers  the  work  of  the  course, 
and  is  both  written  and  oral. 

For  the  practical  training  in  teaching  the  candidates  are  assigned 
to  State  or  designated  private  secondary  schools.  Each  candidate 
must  select  one  subject  as  major  and  one  as  minor,  which  choice 
usually  determines  the  teacher  under  whose  supervision  and  guid- 
ance the  candidate's  practice  teaching  is  to  be  done.  At  first  the  can- 
didate visits  classes  in  his  chosen  subjects  and  discusses  methods 
employed  with  the  teacher  in  charge.  Then  the  candidate  himself 
teaches  a  few  periods  in  the  presence  of  his  adviser,  who  offers  such 
suggestions  as  may  be  helpful.  Finally,  the  candidate  takes  full 
charge  of  the  instruction,  his  adviser  not  being  present.  He  must, 
however,  each  day  render  an  account  of  the  instruction  he  has 
given  and  the  methods  employed.  Aside  from  teaching  in  his 
major  and  minor  subjects,  the  candidate  must  visit  other  classes, 
both  in  secondary  and  elementary  schools.  A  preliminary  examina- 
tion in  this  part  of  the  candidate's  training  consists  of  two  hours  of 
teaching  in  his  major  subject  and  one  in  his  minor,  in  the  presence 
of  his  adviser,  the  head  master  of  the  school,  and  the  State  inspector 
of  complete  secondary  schools.  The  above  examinations  in  theory 
and  practice  being  passed,  the  candidate  must  serve  a  probationary 
term  of  one  year  in  a  secondary  school.  A  final  test  of  his  teaching 
ability  is  then  made  by  a  committee  consisting  of  the  head  master 
of  the  school  and  the  State  inspector  or  other  designated  persons, 
who  observe  the  candidate's  teaching  through  a  period  not  exceeding 
two  days.  A  written  document,  signed  by  the  examining  commit- 
tee, constitutes  the  candidates  final  testimonial  of  teaching  ability. 
He  is  then  eligible  for  a  permanent  position  in  a  complete  secondary 
school. 

The  arrangement  and  conduct  of  the  training  and  examination  of 
secondary  teachers  is  in  the  hands  of  the  State  inspector  of  com- 
plete secondary  schools,  who  receives  applicants  for  training,  assigns 
candidates  to  schools  for  their  practice  teaching,  and  arranges  the 
various  examinations.  By  this  connection  with  teachers  in  training 
he  is  eminently  qualified  to  make  valuable  recommendations  as  to 
appointments. 

In  secondary  schools  that  do  not  have  Gymnasium  departments, 
the  requirements  for  appointment  are  not  so  high  as  in  the  complete 
secondary  schools.  Many  teachers  from  the  elementary  schools  have 
by  special  training,  especially  in  the  State  Teachers'  College, 
equipped  themselves  for  teaching  in  middle  schools. 

A  special  examination  for  women  teachers  in  girls'  higher  schools 
has  been  arranged,  which  meets  the  characteristic  requirements  of 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION".  63 

these  schools.  Candidates  who  have  passed  this  examination  are  in 
great  demand  in  the  girls'  higher  schools.^ 

Pensions. — By  State  action  there  have  been  established  two  pen- 
sion bureaus,  one  for  teachers  in  complete  secondary  schools  and 
another  for  Keal  and  middle  schools.  Each  teacher  pays  to  the 
pension  fund  2  per  cent  of  his  salary  annually.  To  this  is  added 
appropriations  from  the  schools  and  State  aid  to  the  amount  of 
30,000  kroner  annually.  After  25  years  of  service  the  teachers  are 
entitled  to  an  annual  pension  of  two-thirds  of  their  average  salary 
during  the  last  10  years  of  service.^ 

Sup'port  of  secondary  education — State  schools. — State  schools 
derive  their  funds  in  part  from  the  income  of  lands  devoted  to  the 
support  of  churches  and  schools  and  from  productive  funds.  Tu- 
ition fees  and  other  minor  sources  contribute  a  share,  and  the  bal- 
ance is  covered  by  appropriations  from  State  moneys.  Tuition  in 
the  middle  schools  is  120  kroner  a  year,  in  the  Gymnasium  and  Real 
course  the  amount  is  144  kroner.  At  the  boarding  school  at  Soro 
400  kroner  a  year  are  paid  for  room,  board,  tuition,  and  incidentals. 
Free  places  are  maintained  for  a  number  equal  to  one-sixth  of  the 
total  enrollment.^ 

Communal  schools. — Communal  secondary  schools  are  supported  by 
funds  obtained  from  the  State,  the  county,  the  local  community,  and 
in  some  cases  from  tuition  fees.  Some  communal  middle  schools  are 
absolutely  free  to  all  children,  some  are  free  to  all  within  the  dis- 
trict, and  some  are  free  only  to  poor  children.  In  cases  where  tui- 
tion is  charged,  the  amount  per  child  is  graded  in  an  ascending  scale 
from  the  lower  to  the  higher  classes.  Fees  range  from  1^  kroner  a 
month  in  the  lowest  class  of  one  school  to  14  kroner  in  the  highest 
class  of  another  school.  Perhaps  the  most  common  amount  is  5  or  6 
kroner  a  month.* 

Private  schools. — In  the  case  of  private  secondary  schools  the 
sources  of  income  are  various.  Most  of  them  receive  some  State 
aid,  some  grants  from  county  or  commune.  Other  sources  are: 
Endowments,  gifts  of  societies  and  private  persons,  and  tuition 
moneys.  Private  schools  depend  much  on  tuition  fees,  which  are 
therefore,  as  a  rule,  higher  than  in  State  or  communal  schools.  In 
Copenhagen  the  usual  rate  is  20  to  23  kroner  per  month.  Outside 
of  Copenhagen  the  fees  are  not  so  high,  however,  ranging  from  10 
to  20  kroner.* 

Even  with  these  higher  tuition  fees  the  private  schools  are  ex- 
periencing financial  difficulties.     This  is  especially  true  since  the 

1  Lang,  Den  hojere  Pigeskole  in  De  Nordiska  Landernas  SkolvSsen,  1905-1910,  p.  96. 
8  Linderstrom-Lang,  Drenge  og  Fsellesskoler  in  Danmarks  Skoievsesen,  p.  16. 
«  Glalin,  Lov  om  hojere  Almenskoler,  pp.  11-12. 
*Asmussen,  op.  cit.,  pp.  104ff. 

3334°— 15 5 


64  THE   EDUCATIONAL   SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 

erection  of  free  or  low-rate  communal  secondary  schools.  In  order 
to  better  their  financial  status,  several  of  the  leading  private  boys' 
schools  in  Copenhagen  banded  together  in  1901  into  a  federation 
under  one  business  management.  Some  schools  that  indicated  lack 
of  sufficient  patronage  were  discontinued  and  their  teachers  were 
transferred  to  other  schools  in  the  federation.  The  persistent  de- 
mands of  teachers  for  better  pay  have  made  necessary  increasingly 
higher  tuition  fees.  Parents  finally  became  alarmed,  and  in  1908 
organized  a  parents'  association  to  counteract  the  "  teachers'  union." 
A  bitter  struggle  between  the  two  associations  has  ensued.  More 
generous  State  aid  has  been  pointed  to  as  one  element  in  the  solu- 
tion of  the  difficulty.^ 

Conclusion, — The  last  decade  has  been  a  period  of  reorganization 
in  the  Danish  secondary  school  world.  School  people  have  some- 
times been  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  new 
order  of  things,  and  full  satisfaction  with  the  present  system  has 
not  always  been  in  evidence.  In  general,  however,  the  system  of 
middle  school.  Real  course,  and  Gymnasium  as  at  present  arranged, 
seems  to  meet  the  requirements  in  an  acceptable  manner.  Each 
year  the  new  forms  are  becoming  more  familiar,  and  in  the  quiet 
pursuance  of  their  various  functions  the  schools  will  undoubtedly 
perform  a  valuable  service  for  the  Danish  youth.  State,  commune, 
and  private  initiative  are  operating  together  to  give  Denmark  the 
best  secondary  school  system  within  its  reach.  The  recent  activity 
of  the  local  communities  in  establishing  and  maintaining  free  pub- 
lic middle  schools  is  a  particularly  significant  sign  of  progress. 
Throughout  there  is  a  marked  tendency  toward  democracy  in  edu- 
cation and  a  careful  adaptation  of  educational  agencies  of  the  sec- 
ondary type  to  the  needs  of  the  people. 


Chapter  V. 

UNIVERSITY  AND  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION. 

The  university — Organization  and  teaching  force. — At  the  top  of 
the  educational  system  of  Denmark  stands  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen. Founded  in  1478,  the  institution  is  quite  venerable  with  age, 
and  has  exerted  a  tremendous  influence  upon  the  cultural  life  of 
northern  Europe.  The  work  of  the  university  is  organized  under 
five  faculties,  with  a  teaching  force  of  149,  divided  as  follows :  The- 
ology, 14;  law,  17;  medicine,  47;  philosophy,  44;  and  mathematical- 

»  Martensen-Larson,  "  Skal  Privatskolen  leve?" 


TJNTVERSITY  AND  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION.  65 

scientific,  27.^  The  rectorship  rotates  among  the  faculty  members, 
the  period  of  office  being  one  year.  The  highest  coimcil  is  the  Con- 
sistoriiim  of  18  members,  and  the  rector  and  prorector,  if  these  are 
not  already  members.  The  18  members  comprise  the  5  deans  of  fac- 
ulties and  13  members  elected  by  the  academic  teachers'  council 
among  those  of  their  number  who  are  faculty  members. 

The  teachers  are  of  four  degrees — professor  ordinary,  professor 
extraordinary,  docent  extraordinary,  and  privat  docent.  The  salary 
of  a  professor  ordinary  is  3,600  kroner,  with  an  increase  of  600 
kroner  every  fifth  year  up  to  6,000  kroner.  Salaries  are  considered 
unreasonably  Iotv,  and  a  bill  has  recently  been  introduced  into  Par- 
liament to  have  them  raised. 

Matriculation. — The  university  student  body  numbers  at  present 
about  3,000.  They  come,  as  previously  noted,  from  the  Gymnasia 
of  the  country.  Students  graduating  from  the  Gymnasium  do  not 
receive  the  degree  of  bachelor.  That  term  is  not  used  in  Denmark. 
They  are  granted  by  the  university,  however,  a  Letter  of  Academic 
Citizenship,  which  bestows  about  the  same  honors  and  privileges 
that  we  in  America  associate  with  the  academic  bachelorhood  and 
admits  to  the  university  without  examination. 

Courses  and  degrees. — During  the  first  year  in  the  university  all 
students  must  pursue  the  same  course,  leading  to  the  degree  candidate 
of  philosophy,  the  examination  for  which  is  generally  taken  at  the 
end  of  the  first  year.  The  subjects  required  are  logic,  psychology, 
and  an  elementary  course  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  The  above 
examination  is  very  insignificant,  however.  The  "big"  examina- 
tions come  later.  The  length  of  the  various  professional  courses  in 
the  university  is  not  as  definite  as  we  ordinarily  think  of  them  in 
American  schools.  The  following  is  an  estimated  average  of  the 
time  required  for  the  various  degrees,  including  also  the  first  year  in 
the -university:  Candidate  of  theology,  5  J  to  6  years;  candidate  of 
medicine,  7  to  8  years;  candidate  of  law,  5 J  to  6  years;  candidate  of 
politics,  5J  to  6 J  years;  master  of  arts  and  master  of  science,  4  to  5 
years;  and  the  teaching  degree,  candidatus  magisteri,  about  6  years,  j 

As  noted  in  the  review  of  secondary  education,  the  Danish  youth  j 
finishes  his  university  preparatory  course  about  the  time  that  the  ' 
American  youth  completes  the  high  school.    The  professional  courses 
in  Denmark  are  considerably  longer,  however,  than  in  America,  so 
that  while  the  youth  gets  a  shorter  general  course  he  gets  a  longer 
specialized  training. 

/Student  life  and  residence  halls. — Student  life  at  the  university 
centers  around  two  types  of  institutions,  the  residence  houses  and  the 

lAarbog  for  Kjobenhavns  Unlversitet,  Kommunitetet,  og  den  Polytekinske  Laereanstalt, 
1906-7. 


66  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OP  DENMARK. 

student  associations.  The  student  residences,  of  which  there  are  about 
half  a  dozen,  with  rooms  for  10  to  100  students,  have  been  estab- 
lished and  endowed  by  people  of  means.  In  these,  students  who  are 
fortunate  enough  to  get  in  enjoy  free  residence  and,  in  some,  a  cash 
stipend  in  addition.  .  The  most  famous  of  these  residences  is 
Regensen^  established  in  1623,  for  100  students.  Free  residence  and 
an  allowance  of  50  kroner  a  month  are  granted  each  occupant.  There 
is  no  boarding  establishment  in  connection,  but  a  couple  of  small 
kitchens  in  which  some  of  the  students  prepare  their  lunches.  In 
Regensen  have  lived  many  men  famous  in  Danish  literature  and  his- 
tory. In  a  room  now  used  as  a  reading  room  Grundtvig  preached 
his  famous  trial  sermon  on,  "Why  is  the  Lord's  Word  Departed 
from  His  House  ?  "  which  stirred  up  the  clergy  of  Copenhagen. 

Much  is  done  for  the  encouragement  of  poor  students.  Com- 
munitet  is  the  name  of  an  endowment,  established  about  1580  and 
managed  by  the  university,  out  of  which  are  paid  185  stipends  of 
40  kroner  a  month  to  needy  students. 

Student  associations. — ^The  other  phase  of  student  life  is  very 
characteristic.  It  is  that  provided  by  the  student  associations.  The 
general  association  is  the  Studenterforening^  with  about  800  mem- 
bers, students  past  and  present.  This  association  has  a  most  splendid 
building,  recently  erected  by  support  from  the  State  and  various 
other  sources.  In  it  are  reading  rooms,  dining  rooms,  smoking 
rooms,  lecture  halls,  and  the  like,  very  beautifully  equipped.  This 
building  furnishes  a  center  and  home  for  a  great  many  students. 
There  are,  however,  no  opportunities  for  students  to  room  in  this 
building.  Students  both  in  and  out  of  Studenterforeningen  are 
furthermore  organized  into  groups  with  a  particular  politico- 
religious  coloring. 

There  are  two  confessed  Christian  associations,  Studenterhj em- 
met and  Kristeligt  Studenterforhund^  while  Studentersamfundet  is 
radical  both  with  reference  to  religion  and  politics.  All  the  asso- 
ciations have  their  own  centers,  with  reading  and  lounging  rooms, 
but  no  rooming  places.  They  meet  on  Saturday  evenings  and  have 
a  lecture  on  a  religious,  political,  literary,  historical,  scientific, 
or  other  subject.  A  discussion  follows,  during  which  students  do 
not  hesitate  in  the  least  to  take  issue  with  the  lecturer,  be  he  a 
world-famed  scholar  or  a  mere  tyro.  At  intervals  or  after  the  dis- 
cussion a  social  time  with  refreshments  is  enjoyed.  Both  men  and 
women  are  members  and  participate  in  the  student  association  life. 

Support. — The  university  has  to  some  extent  its  own  funds,  but 
receives  from  the  State,  for  all  its  activities,  nearly  1,000,000  kroner 
a  year.  There  is  no  tuition,  properly  speaking,  there  being  only  a 
few  minor  fees. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION.  67 

Poly  technical  Institute. — The  Polytechnical  Institute,  both  as  to 
entrance  requirements,  quality  of  work,  and  student  life,  is  much  on 
a  par  with  the  university  and  there  is  some  connection  between  the 
students  of  the  two  institutions.  It  has  a  faculty  of  33  members, 
and  students  numbering  776.  Through  five  and  six  year  courses  it 
trains  chemical,  mechanical,  construction,  and  electrical  engineers. 
It  has  splended  new  buildings,  elaborate  and  expensive  equipment, 
and  costs  the  State  about  345.,000  kroner  a  year.^ 

Courses  in  dentistry  and  pharmacy  do  not  constitute  a  part  of  the 
university,  but  are  given  in  separate  institutions.  Mention  can 
merely  be  made  of  other  semiprofessional  schools,  such  as  fine  arts, 
military  and  naval  academy,  and  seven  schools  of  navigation. 

Veterinary  and  agricultural  college. — A  very  significant  institu- 
tion for  Denmark  is  the  Veterinary  and  Agricultural  College  in 
Copenhagen,  for  around  its  work  center  many  of  the  problems  of 
this  agricultural  and  dairy  country.  The  institution  was  founded  in 
1856.  At  present  32  teachers  instruct  442  students,  28  of  whom  were, 
in  1910,  from  Norway.^  Formerly  the  number  from  that  country 
was  much  greater,  but  since  Norway  established  and  equipped  a 
splendid  agricultural  college  at  Aas,  near  Christiania,  the  number 
of  agricultural  students  going  to  Denmark  has  been  much  decreased. 
Courses  in  the  Danish  college  range  from  one  and  two-thirds  to  five 
years,  and  include  theoretical,  experimental,  and  practical  work  in 
veterinary  science,  agriculture  in  all  its  phases,  animal  husbandry, 
horticulture,  and  forestry. 

In  addition  to  the  veterinary  clinics  there  are  operated  in  connec- 
tion with  the  institution  chemical  and  bacteriological  laboratories  for 
testing  soils  and  foods  and  combating  tuberculosis  and  other  diseases 
in  domestic  animals.  There  is  also  a  laboratory  for  the  study  of 
animal  physiology.  An  ambulator}^  department  of  the  school  insti- 
tutes experiments  in  dairy  methods,  feeding,  and  breeding  of  ani- 
mals on  selected  farms  throughout  the  country.  Every  year  are 
held  at  the  college  butter  exhibitions,  to  which  every  creamery  oper- 
ating in  the  country  must,  upon  order  by  telegraph  or  telephone,  send 
at  once  a  sample  of  its  butter  already  manufactured.  The  butter  is 
tested  and  graded  with  reference  to  its  excellence  as  an  export  prod- 
uct, and  any  creamery  whose  butter  sample  does  not  measure  up  to 
the  standard,  may  temporarily  be  denied  the  use  of  the  trade-mark 
of  the  Danish  butter-export  association.  The  obligation  of  every 
creamery  to  send,  without  previous  warning,  a  sample  of  its  butter  at 
any  time  an  order  may  come,  tends  to  keep  the  creameries  always  up 
to  the  highest  mark  of  efficiency. 

1  Op.  cit. 

•Beretning  fra  Den  Kongelige  Veterinaerspog  Landbohojskole,  1909-10. 


68  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 

The  activities  of  the  agricultural  college  require  from  the  State 
an  appropriation  of  540,000  kroner  annually.^  The  other  agricul- 
tural schools  throughout  the  country,  which  together  with  the  agri- 
cultural college  constitute  the  system  of  vocational  training  for  rural 
Denmark,  are  so  closely  bound  up  with  the  people's  high  schools  that 
they  will  be  treated  of  under  that  heading,  in  the  second  part  of  this 
study. 

Industrial  schools. — Denmark  does  much  in  many  ways  to  en- 
courage every  youth  to  acquire  proficiency  in  his  chosen  vocation, 
and  to  place  educational  facilities  for  this  purpose  within  his  reach. 
Thus  are  worthy  of  special  notice  the  technical  and  trade  schools 
which  are  found  all  over  the  country,  and  are  largely  attended.^  In 
1911  there  were  160  such  schools  with  a  total  attendance  of  over 
18,000.  They  are  mostly  evening  schools  in  which  young  persons 
from  14  years  upward,  who  are  learning  a  trade,  may  supplement 
their  training  by  courses  in  Danish,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
bookkeeping,  free-hand  drawing,  descriptive  geometry,  geometrical 
construction,  and  foreign  languages,  usually  English  and  German. 
In  addition  to  these  more  general  subjects  there  are  also  trade  courses 
for  masons,  carpenters,  joiners,  tinners,  turners,  coach  makers, 
smiths,  mechanicians,  electricians,  and  the  like.  Some  schools  also 
give  instruction  in  painting,  clay  modeling,  and  art  industries.  Still 
another  type  of  instruction  is  given  in  the  trade  schools  proper,  which 
are  generally  maintained  by  trade  unions  and  supported  by  local  and 
State  aid.  Thus  there  are  evening  trade  schools  for  shoemakers, 
tailors,  watchmakers,  bookbinders,  barbers,  hotel  clerks,  cooks,  dress- 
makers, milliners,  servant  girls,  and  the  like. 

The  instruction  is  usually  given  from  7  to  10  o'clock  through  the 
months  October  to  March,  and  the  same  student  usually  continues 
through  the  several  years  during  which  he  is  learning  his  trade. 
More  than  half  of  the  schools  have  their  own  buildings.  The  rest  are 
conducted  in  public-school  buildings.  The  teachers  are  frequently 
public  school-teachers  or  men  and  women  proficient  in  their  trades. 
During  the  summer  months  the  State  maintains  special  training 
courses  for  such  teachers. 

Some  of  the  larger  schools  in  the  cities  have  established  day 
schools,  in  which  instruction  is  given  in  a  wider  range  of  cultural 
subjects  and  in  branches  that  are  required  for  proficiency  in  the  more 
difficult  trades,  such  as  draftsmanship,  building  construction,  and 
decoration. 

ScJwol  for  servant  girls. — A  most  interesting  and  unique  trade 
school  is  operated  in  Copenhagen  by  the  Servant  Girls'  Union.    There 

1  Landokonomisk  Aarbog,  1912,  pp.  12-15. 

2  Andersen,  Summary  of  the  Development  of  Technical  Insti'uction  in  Denmark.  (Manu- 
script) 


UNIVERSITY  AND  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION.  69 

is  a  six  months'  course  for  beginners  and  advanced  courses  of  two 
months  for  special  training  in  cooking,  dining-room  service,  and  the 
like.^  The  girls  live  at  the  school  and  pay  10  kroner  a  month  for 
tuition,  board,  room,  and  laundry.  Theoretical  instruction  in  the 
six  months'  course  embraces  nutrition,  hygiene,  and  care  of  the  sick 
and  children.  For  the  practical  instruction  the  girls  are  divided  into 
three  sections,  for  kitchen,  housemaid,  and  laundry  work,  respec- 
tively. By  rotation  every  week  the  girls  thus  do  all  the  actual  work 
connected  with  the  school,  and  by  so  doing  under  competent  super- 
vision receive  instruction  in  preparation  of  food,  baking,  housework, 
setting  table,  serving,  sewing,  washing,  ironing,  and  household 
accounts. 

When  graduates  of  the  school  accept  positions  they  are  bound  by 
the  rules  of  the  union.  Some  of  the  rules  of  service  are :  The  work- 
day extends  from  6  or  7  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  the  same  hour  in 
the  evening,  with  one  or  one  and  a  half  hours  for  rest  during  the  day ; 
every  other  Sunday  and  holiday  free  from  2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
and  two  evenings  a  week,  after  7  o'clock,  when  the  girl  may  leave  the 
house  i^  she  chooses;  at  least  eight  days'  vacation  a  year;  overtime 
to  be  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  25  ore  per  hour  or  15  ore  for  the  half- 
hour.  Needless  to  say,  many  housewives  are  incensed  at  the  regula- 
tions of  the  union  and  refuse  to  employ  union  girls.  Others  recog- 
nize the  superior  quality  of  the  girls  that  have  received  the  training 
of  the  school  and  are  willing  to  pay  the  higher  wages  they  ask  and 
grant  the  desired  liberties  in  return  for  the  superior  excellence  in 
service.  The  school  and  the  terms  of  service  tend  to  raise  the  social 
status  of  servant  girls,  and  may  therefore  be  a  significant  contribution 
to  the  solution  of  the  problem  that  is  vexing  housewives  in  all 
countries. 

Schools  of  housekeeping  and  domestic  science. — Schools  of  house- 
keeping and  domestic  science  have  recently  experienced  a  rapid 
growth  in  Denmark.  There  are  now  some  20  schools  in  the  country, 
13  of  which  received  State  aid  in  1912-13.-  Nearly  all  the  schools  are 
boarding  schools.  By  doing  in  part  the  actual  work  connected  with 
the  institution,  under  competent  supervision,  the  girls  receive  practi- 
cal training  in  all  phases  of  housekeeping  and  domestic  science. 
Usually  two  courses  of  five  months  each  are  operated  each  year,  one 
from  May  to  September  and  the  other  from  November  to  March. 
The  theoretical  subjects  embrace  nutrition,  hygiene,  and  household 
accounts.  Many  schools  also  include  some  liberal  subjects  in  their 
courses.  The  schools  are  largely  frequented  by  girls  from  the  better 
class  of  homes,  who  seek  the  training  of  the  schools  to  equip  them  for 
presiding  over  their  own  future  homes.    Three  schools  are  devoting 

*  Bulletin,  Kobenhavns  Tjenestepigeforenings  Fagskole. 
"Fortegnelse  over  Husholdningsskoler,  1912-13. 


70  THE  EDUCATION-AL  SYSTEM   OF  DENMARK. 

themselves  to  training  teachers  for  these  and  other  schools  in  which 
similar  instruction  is  given.  One  of  these  normal  schools  has  a 
three-year  course,  and  the  others  maintain  courses  of  two-years'  work. 

For  1912-13  the  State  appropriated  468,000  kroner  to  technical 
schools,  68,000  kroner  to  trade  schools,  and  12,000  kroner  to  schools 
of  housekeeping  and  domestic  science.^  The  schools  are  not  a  part  of 
the  public  school  system.  They  are  established  and  maintained  by 
private  persons  or  associations,  but  are  not  conducted  as  money- 
making  ventures. 

Commercial  schools. — The  same  is  true  of  another  numerous  and 
important  type  of  schools,  the  commercial  schools,  of  which  there  are 
in  the  country  8  day  schools  and  59  evening  schools,  Avith  a  total  of 
over  6,000  students.  As  technical  and  trade  schools  serve  for  the  in- 
dustries, so  the  commercial  schools  suppplement  the  training  of  the 
young  people  who  enter  the  commercial  field.  It  is  customary  in 
Denmark  for  business  houses  to  take  in  young  men  to  learn  their  busi- 
ness at  about  the  age  of  14.  They  serve  an  apprenticeship  of  from 
four  to  five  years,  during  which  period  it  is  generally  required  that 
the  learners  attend  the  evening  commercial  school.  The  course  runs 
usually  through  three  years  of  10  months  each,  with  6  hours  a  week. 
A  selection  of  subjects  may  be  made  from  Danish,  German,  English, 
French,  Spanish,  Russian,  arithmetic,  writing,  correspondence,  geog- 
raphy, bookkeeping,  typewriting,  stenography,  commercial  law,  com- 
modities of  commerce,  and  gymnastics.^ 

The  day  commercial  schools  are  usually  attended  by  older  pupils 
who  have  served  their  apprenticeship  or  have  completed  the  middle 
school.  Real  school,  or  Gymnasium  and  require  the  student's  whole 
time  while  pursuing  a  course.  It  seems  difficult  in  Denmark  for 
prospective  young  business  men  to  set  aside  a  year  of  their  time  in 
order  to  attend  a  day  commercial  school.  The  sysfem  of  recruiting 
business  men  by  the  apprenticeship  system  takes  them  directly  from 
the  elementary  schools  and  they  are  therefore  not  well  equipped  to 
do  the  work  of  a  higher  commercial  school,  even  if  they  have  attended 
an  evening  commercial  school.  Furthermore,  after  spending  four  or 
five  years  as  an  apprentice,  the  young  man  begrudges  the  time  neces- 
sary for  a  year  course  in  a  day  school.  The  evening  commercial 
schools  are  therefore  the  most  popular  method  of  supplementing  the 
education  of  the  business  man. 

Some  day  schools  are  found,  however.  They  all  have  courses  ex- 
tending over  one  year,  except  Brock's  Commercial  College,  in  Copen- 
hagen. This  school  has  a  two-year  course  and  serves  as  a  central 
school  for  the  whole  country,  drawing  students  who  are  desirous  of 

1  Finanslov,  1912-13. 

»  De  danske  Handelsskoler,  Fremstilling  av  deres  indretning  og  virksomlied. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION.  71 

advanced  commercial  training.  In  addition  to  more  elementary  sub- 
jects its  two-year  course  embraces  economics,  commerce,  exchange, 
tariffs,  statistics,  technology,  commodities  of  commerce,  and  the  com- 
mercial phases  of  history,  geogi'aphy,  chemistry,  and  law. 

To  the  support  of  commercial  schools  the  State  appropriates  an- 
nually 60,000  kroner.! 

This,  in  brief  compass,  is  the  system  by  which  Denmark  strives  to 
educate  her  people  culturally  and  vocationally.  The  outline  provides 
the  setting  for  a  somewhat  more  detailed  study  of  what  is  perhaps 
the  most  interesting  feature  of  Danish  education,  the  work  of  the 
people's  high  schools  and  the  related  agricultural  schools.  These 
institutions  constitute  the  subject  of  the  second  part  of  this  study. 

iQp.  cit,  p.  13. 


PART  II.    THE  DANISH  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Chapter  VI. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

People's  high  school  defined. — The  Danish  people's  high  school  is 
a  unique  institution,  and  a  preliminary  statement  of  its  nature  and 
purpose  may  therefore  serve  to  make  more  intelligible  the  discussion 
that  follows.  The  people's  high  schools  {FolJceh0jskoler)  are 
boarding  schools  for  adult  young  people,  chiefly  from  the  rural  com- 
munities. They  are  not  vocational,  but  cultural  in  their  purpose. 
The  typical .  course  extends  through  five  months  in  winter  for  boys 
and  three  months  in  summer  for  girls.  A  second  winter  is  frequently 
spent  by  the  boys  in  one  of  the  agricultural  schools,  which  have  grown 
out  of  the  high-school  movement.  These  agricultural  schools  are 
so  closely  related  to  the  people's  high  schools  in  their  historical 
development  and  method  of  work  that  they  are  here,  as  generally, 
treated  together,  such  special  mention  being  made  of  them  as  from 
time  to  time  may  be  necessary  for  a  correct  presentation.  Both 
types  of  schools  are  privately  owned  but  receive  State  aid.  To- 
gether they  number  99,  and  have  an  annual  attendance  of  over  8,000 
young  people.  It  is  estimated  that  from  one-third  to  one-fourth  of 
the  entire  rural  population  of  Denmark  at  some  time  or  other  attend 
these  schools.  Their  influence  in  the  country  is  therefore  very  great, 
and  as  a  type  of  school  activity  they  present  many  phases  of  interest 
to  students  of  popular  education. 

Grundtvig''s  early  life. — The  father  of  the  people's  high  schools 
was  Bishop  N.  F.  S.  Grundtvig  (1783-1872),  theologian,  historian, 
poet,  patriot,  and  educator.  On  both  his  father's  and  mother's  side 
his  ancestry  included  distinguished  theologians  and  scientists.  His 
father  was  a  clergyman  in  southern  Zealand.  There,  in  a  home  of 
culture  set  amidst  the  beauties  of  nature,  Grundtvig  spent  his  early 
years.  By  stories  and  legends  his  mother  awakened  the  boy's  his- 
torical sense,  which  continued  to  be  fed  by  the  reading  of  historical 
books,  huge  of  bulk,  whose  profound  contents  taxed  the  father's  and 
mother's  capacity  to  explain.^ 

lA  good  biography  of  Grundtvig  is  L.  Schroder's  N.  F.  S.  Grundtvig's  Levned. 

73 


74  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

Preparatory  education. — At  the  age  of  9  Grundtvig  was  sent  to  be 
prepared  for  the  Latin  school  by  a  bachelor  clergyman  who  had  pre- 
viously served  as  tutor  for  Grundtvig's  elder  brothers.  This  clergy- 
man served  a  parish  in  Jutland  on  the  border  of  the  great  heath, 
where  the  natural  and  human  environment  was  far  different  from 
that  of  Grundtvig's  home,  and  served  during  his  six  years'  stay  to 
broaden  his  knowledge  and  sympathies.  He  said  later  that  he  here 
became  familiar  with  "  seriousness  and  quietness  in  nature  and  in  the 
thought  life  of  the  soul."  Here,  too,  he  had  to  find  his  companions 
among  the  peasants  and  workingmen,  and  developed  thus  an  interest 
in  the  common  people  which  was  rare  in  a  man  of  his  origin  and 
station.  He  also  traveled  some  during  this  period,  learned  to  know 
more  of  his  country,  and  became  familiar  with  the  dialects  peculiar 
to  the  different  sections.  Thus  from  first  hand  he  gained  that  uni- 
versal knowledge  of  his  native  language  which  afterwards  made  him 
a  master  of  expression. 

At  the  university. — After  what  he  calls  two  useless  years  at  the 
Latin  school  in  Aarhus,  he  went  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  took  the 
student  examination  and  entered  upon  theological  studies  at  the  uni- 
versity at  the  age  of  17.  He  had  no  particular  interest  at  that  time 
in  theological  studies,  but  his  parents  wished  him  to  take  that  course, 
and,  besides,  it  was  the  line  of  study  usually  entered  upon  by  men 
of  his  class.  Grundtvig  seems  not  to  have  been  much  impressed  by 
any  teachers  at  the  university  except  his  cousin  Steffens,  who  had 
just  returned  from  Germany,  much  influenced  by  the  German  philos- 
ophers. The  free  and  spirited  lectures  of  Steffens  captivated 
Grundtvig  and  exerted  an  influence  which  clearly  came  to  light  later 
in  his  poetry. 

Crises. — After  completing  his  theological  studies,  Grundtvig 
served  for  some  years  as  tutor.  While  in  this  capacity  he  formed  an 
unfortunate  attachment  for  the  mother  of  the  children  he  taught. 
While  this  experience  shattered  his  too  great  self-confidence,  it  also 
served  to  awaken  his  poetic  nature,  which  gradually  unfolded  itself 
into  an  activity  that  placed  him  in  the  very  forefront  of  northern 
poets.  Later  a  religious  crisis  made  him  a  devout  student  of  the 
Bible  and  of  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  history.  These  ex- 
periences and  studies  produced  the  reformer,  burning  with  a  desire 
to  reestablish  a  live  Christianity  among  his  people. 

Service  as  pastor. — Grundtvig  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in 
1811,  and  became  his  father's  curate.  His  trial  sermon  before  ordi- 
nation was  on  the  text,  "  Why  is  the  Lord's  Word  departed  from  His 
house"?  It  stirred  up  the  clergy  of  Copenhagen  and  shows  the 
spirit  of  the  religious  enthusiast.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1813,  he  moved  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  served  as  pastor  until  the 
unfriendliness  of  the  city  clergy,  resulting  from  his  uncomfortable 


OKIGIN  OF  THE  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOLS.  75 

activity,  led  to  his  withdrawal.  After  seven  years  he  resumed  office, 
but  in  1828,  for  similar  reasons,  withdrew  again.  Eleven  years  later 
he  resumed  the  work  of  the  ministry,  in  which  he  continued  for  the 
balance  of  his  life.  As  a  mark  of  recognition  of  his  services  the  title 
of  bishop  without  diocese  was  conferred  upon  him. 

Grundtvig's  service  to  the  cause  of  education  must  be  considered 
in  the  light  of  his  great  life  purjDose,  namely,  to  effect  a  nation-wide 
awakening  of  his  people.  This  purpose  gradually  formed  itself 
more  and  more  clearly  in  his  mind,  and  he  labored  to  discover  the 
means  by  which  it  might  be  accomplished. 

Humiliation  of  Denmark. — In  order  to  appreciate  the  need  for 
such  awakening  and  the  passion  that  burned  in  Grundtvig's  breast 
to  bring  it  about,  it  is  necessary  to  note  the  humiliation  of  Denmark 
at  this  time.  In  bygone  centuries  the  people  of  the  north  had  lorded 
it  over  a  large  part  of  Europe.  Their  conquering  Viking  expedi- 
tions pressed  boldly  forth  into  unknown  regions,  subdued  peoples, 
and  set  up  new  kingdoms.  They  built  up  an  independent  cultural 
civilization  with  a  literature  which,  since  it  has  again  been  brought 
to  light,  never  ceases  to  call  forth  admiration.  But  later,  while  the 
other  European  nations  were  forming  themselves  and  gaining  in 
strength,  the  countries  of  the  north  went  backward.  Politically 
their  territories  were  retrenched  and  their  influence  lessened.  Cul- 
turally they  lost  their  individuality,  and  everything  foreign  came 
into  high  favor.  Northern  culture  was  practically  extinct ;  even  the 
native  languages  were  being  displaced  by  German  and  French  as 
media  of  culture.^  Added  to  this,  Denmark  experienced  one  catas- 
trophe after  the  other  during  Grundtvig's  early  life.  The  Napo- 
leonic wars  were  in  progress.  Denmark  tried  to  remain  neutral,  but 
when  this  was  no  longer  possible,  she  cast  in  her  lot  with  Napoleon, 
and  immediately  lost  her  fleet  to  England.  The  capital  itself  was 
bombarded,  and  a  long  and  disastrous  war  followed.  In  1813  the 
country  was  officially  declared  bankrupt,  and  in  1814  Norway,  which 
had  been  united  with  Denmark  for  400  years,  was  separated  from 
her.  Instead  of  being  aroused  by  these  events,  the  Danish  people 
were  stupefied  and  sank  down  into  a  hopeless  apathy,  expecting 
national  extinction. 

Grundtvig'^s  efforts  for  an  awakening. — Grundtvig,  who  had  lived 
himself  into  the  past  glories  of  the  race,  saw  with  pain  and  bitterness 
the  calamities  that  overtook  his  country  and  the  indifference  of  the 
people,  in  whom  the  spirit  of  national  pride  seemed  absolutely  dead. 
He  began  at  an  early  age  to  cherish  the  idea,  which  later  developed 
into  a  passion,  to  arouse  the  national  feeling  of  his  people.  For  a 
time  he  turned  for  inspiration  to  northern  mythology.    He  thought 

*  Cf.  HoUmann,  Den  Danske  Folkeh^jskole,  pp.  3ff. 


76  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

he  saw  in  the  traits  of  the  old  Norse  gods  the  elements  of  true  in- 
dividual and  national  greatness.  The  product  of  his  devotion  to 
mythology  was  several  books  which  he  hoped  would  stir  the  slum- 
bering qualities  of  the  people.  For  the  time  being,  however,  their 
only  effect  seemed  to  be  to  establish  his  reputation  as  an  author,  lie 
also  gave  himself  to  the  task  of  modernizing  for  the  people  of  his  day 
the  classics  of  northern  history  and  poetry.  During  his  first  period 
of  enforced  leisure  from  the  ministry  he  translated  Snorre  Stur- 
lasson's  Saga  from  Icelandic.  The  chronicles  of  Saxo  Grammaticus 
from  Latin,  and  Beowulf  from  Anglo-Saxon. 

Yisits  to  England. — After  his  second  withdrawal  from  the  minis- 
try, in  1829,  he  spent,  by  the  aid  of  State  stipends,  three  successive 
summers  in  England,  studying  the  neglected  Anglo-Saxon  manu- 
scripts in  London,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Exeter.  His  interest  in 
these  matters  lay  chiefly  in  his  desire  to  familiarize  the  Danish  people 
with  their  spiritual  inheritance,  in  order  that  their  national  spirit 
might  be  stirred  to  action.  Grundtvig's  visits  to  England  were  fruit- 
ful, however,  in  other  than  philological  respects.  He  was  struck  with 
the  active  political  life  of  the  English  people,  who  were  then  in  the 
midst  of  their  reform  legislation.  He  was  impressed,  also,  by  the 
freedom  for  individual  initiative  and  expression,  which  to  him  was 
the  secret  of  the  pulsating  life  and  the  business  energy  that  he  saw 
about  him.  All  this  was  in  marked  contrast  to  the  conditions  at 
home,  and  he  longed  to  see  among  his  own  people  some  of  this  activity 
which  was  making  a  great  England.^ 

Loss  of  faith  in  hoohs. — These  experiences  of  an  active  and  achiev- 
ing life  drew  Grundtvig  out  from  the  retreat  of  the  study  into  the 
open  field  of  action.  Hitherto  his  life  had  been  spent  almost  exclu- 
sively in  the  study  and  production  of  books,  for  he  had  labored  under 
the  impression  that  the  press  was  the  most  effective  means  of  influ- 
encing his  fellow  men.  As  the  years  went  on,  however,  he  became 
disappointed  with  the  results  of  his  literary  activity,  for  the  effort 
of  his  pen  failed  to  arouse  the  people  as  he  had  hoped.  The  years 
and  labor  he  had  spent  on  his  books  seemed  practically  wasted.  The 
people  did  not  read  them ;  or,  if  they  did,  it  was  without  the  reaction 
Grundtvig  had  looked  for.  Having  lost  faith  in  the  magic  of  books, 
he  determined  to  move  to  action.  The  "  living  word  "  of  speech  was 
now  to  accomplish  what  the  "dead  words"  of  books  could  not  do. 
For  a  time  he  seems  to  have  desired  a  professorship  at  the  university, 
where  he  might  give  expression  to  his  ideas  and  enthusiasm,  but  no 
such  opportunity  was  offered.  Even  if  it  had  come,  however,  it  could 
scarcely  have  become  the  means  of  awakening  the  rank  and  file  of  his 
fellow  citizens. 


1  Thornton,  Schools  Public  and  Private  in  the  North  of  Europe,  English  Special  Ee- 
ports,  vol.  17,  p.  112. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOLS.  77 

The  people^s  high-scJiool  idea. — It  was  then  that  the  ideas  about  a 
people's  culture  which  he  had  long  entertained  became  clarified  and 
took  distinct  form.  He  saw  now  more  clearly  than  ever  that  a 
permanent  national  awakening  must  begin  with  a  spiritual  enlighten- 
ment of  the  common  people,  and  as  a  means  to  the  accomplishment 
of  this  purpose  he  made,  in  1832,  his  first  definite  suggestion  of  a 
people's  high  school.    This  was  to  be  an  institution— 

where  the  mother  tongue  should  be  the  ruling  factor  and  the  fatherland  the 
living  center  to  which  all  hearts  might  be  drawn,  and  around  which  the  light 
should  move,  so  that,  after  having  too  long  worshipped  that  which  was  foreign, 
the  people  might  once  more  truly  learn  to  know  and  love  their  home/ 

Grundtvig''s  attitude  toward  existing  schools. — In  order  to  appreci- 
ate the  need  which  Grundtvig  felt  for  this  new  type  of  institution,  it 
is  necessary  to  know  his  attitude  toward  the  existing  agencies  for 
higher  education.  He  brings  a  general  indictment  against  all  types 
of  existing  schools : 

Every  school,  great  or  small,  which  begins  with  the  alphabet  and  ends  with 
book  knowledge — consequently,  everything  which  for  centuries  has  been  called 
school  and  all  that  is  still  so  called — is  a  "  school  for  death."  * 

He  criticizes  the  prevailing  aims  of  education: 

Enlightenment  has  never  been  altogether  neglected  in  Denmark,  but  it  has 
hitherto  clearly  failed  in  its  purposes.  Its  aim  has  been  to  give  all  men  a  Ger- 
man comprehension  of  heaven  and  logic,  and  to  the  professional  class  a  Roman 
comprehension  of  the  whole  world,  but  it  has  given  to  none  a  sound  under- 
standing of  the  things  that  lie  nearest  to  us  all — nature,  the  fatherland,  and 
the  conditions  that  make  for  its  welfare.' 

Opposition  to  the  Latin  school. — He  is  particularly  dissatisfied 
with  the  Latin  schools,  as  appears  from  numerous  passages  in  his 
writings : 

And  although  the  Latin  school,  according  to  my  conviction,  is  not  only  un- 
necessary, but  very  harmful  and  the  mother  of  all  our  woes,  it  ought  still  to 
remain  as  long  as  many  consider  it  to  be  the  necessary  support  of  the  church,  a 
Chinese  wall  against  barbarism,  and  a  nursery  for  all  historical  science.  For 
this  groundless  but  deeply- rooted  prejudice  will  vanish  as  soon  as  people  see 
that  the  Danish  school  really  makes  the  church  more  alive  and  fruitful  for  the 
Danish  people  and  inculcates  much  more  love  for  Denmark  and  understanding 
of  its  needs.  Such  a  school  may  become  the  cradle  of  an  historical  science 
which  does  not  fetter  its  devotees  with  chains  to  the  dead  languages  and  their 
graves  or  grammars,  but  unites  them  in  a  living  relationship  with  past  genera- 
tions and  especially  with  our  northern  forefathers.* 

The  reasons  for  Grundtvig's  hatred  of  the  Latin  schools  were 
many.^  He  contended  that  humanistic  studies  as  pursued  by  mere 
children  in  the  schools  made  them  strangers  to  their  own  language, 

»  Quoted  by  Schroder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  22. 
«  Grundtvig,  Skolen  for  Livet,  p.  12. 
•Grundtvig,  Akademlet  i  Soer,  p.  32. 

*  Grundtvig,  Skolen  for  Livet,  p.  11. 

•  Ct  Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  270. 


78  THE  DAinSH   people's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

literature,  and  national  spirit,  while  it  gave  them  no  real  insight  into 
classic  culture.  Their  acquisition  was  a  mere  formal  knowledge  of 
grammar  and  syntax  and  a  quantity  of  historical  facts.  Moreover, 
he  despised  Roman  civilization,  which  to  him  was  organized  selfish- 
ness and  force,  producing  nothing  great  out  of  itself ,  but  borrowing 
everything  from  Hellenism.  He  was  deeply  grieved  that  the  influ- 
ence of  such  a  civilization  had  overwhelmed  the  Germanic  peoples, 
who  had  in  themselves  the  elements  of  true  individual  and  national 
greatness.  Under  the  influence  of  Christianity,  which  permits  the 
individual  to  reach  his  fullest  development,  the  Germanic  peoples 
had  made  notable  progress  in  the  development  of  a  truly  humanistic 
Christian  culture.  Therefore  to  have  inflicted  upon  them  as  the  chief 
means  of  culture  the  literature  and  history  of  a  people  foreign  in 
spirit  and  ideals  was  to  Grundtvig  a  real  calamity.  It  is  difficult  for 
him  to  speak  calmly  about  the  situation : 

I  confess  that  it  is  my  firm  conviction  that  all  child  science  is  preposterous, 
and  that  the  bookworm  system,  seclusion  from  the  world,  the  setting  aside  of 
the  mother  tongue,  and  the  deification  of  the  Latin  writings  constitute  the  most 
unsuitable  education  for  royal  Danish  leaders  that  I  can  conceive  of.* 

Grundtvig  was  opposed  to  the  Latin  schools  also  because  of  the 
aristocratic  standard  of  culture  for  which  they  stood.  To  a  man  who 
was  trying  to  open  a  way  to  a  common  culture  for  the  common  peo- 
ple the  wearing  of  a  "  Latin  cloak  "  could  not  be  a  true  criterion  of 
culture.  Grundtvig  held  that  culture  finds  its  source  and  means  in 
that  which  is  "  of  the  people."  Another  chief  objection  which  is  still 
a  very  pronounced  line  of  demarcation  between  the  people's  high 
schools  and  the  ordinary  type  of  secondary  schools  was  the  emphasis 
on  examinations.  Examinations  played  and  still  play  a  tremendous 
role  in  Denmark.  Openings  to  nearly  all  positions  of  importance 
in  the  country  are  via  examinations.  Examinations  open  the  way  to 
a  "  sure  living,"  and  preparation  for  examinations  seemed  to  Grundt- 
vig to  be  the  chief  function  of  the  "  learned  "  schools.  With  despair 
he  beheld  this  eternal  striving  for  a  "  sure  living,"  but  saw  no  real 
desire  for  culture  for  its  own  sake. 

Criticism  of  the  Real  school. — The  mathematical  Real  school  finds 
as  little  favor  with  Grundtvig  as  the  Latin  school : 

Likewise  I  believe  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  even  if  it  were  an  excellent  round- 
about way  or  training  for  citizenship  to  go  through  the  mathematical  purgatory 
it  would  be  such  only  on  the  condition  that  the  boys  could  be  relieved  of  all 
their  learnings,  lay  all  reckonings  and  demonstrations  on  the  shelf,  dismiss  all 
bookwormishness  from  their  minds,  put  on  industriousness  with  their  everyday 
clothes,  and  each  eagerly  take  up  his  handicraft.  Otherwise  they  would  at  the 
very  best  be  fit  to  be  professors  of  mathematics  or  teachers  in  schools  of  the 
same  kind.     If  so,  we  should  have  a  circle  of  schooling,  examinations,  and  a 

»  Grundtvig,  Skolen  for  Livet,  p.  25. 


ORIGIN   OF   THE  PEOPLE 's   HIGH   SCHOOLS.  79 

sure  living  similar  to  that  of  the  Latin  schools,  but  on  a  much  larger  scale. 
Such  a  system  would  exhaust  the  resources  of  even  the  richest  nation,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  poorest/ 

Work  of  people^s  high  schools  outlined. — Finding  that  none  of  the 
institutions  of  his  day  afforded  the  means  of  a  true  people's  culture, 
Grundtvig  felt  the  need  of  a  new  type  of  school,  a  "  school  for  life," 
whose  aim  should  not  be  "  examinations  and  a  sure  living,"  but  "  a 
culture  and  enlightenment  which  is  the  individual's  own  affair,  and 
is  its  own  reward."  ^  Grundtvig  never  formulated  any  definite  plan 
for  the  activity  of  his  people's  high  school.  He  tells  why  he  can  not 
do  so: 

As  to  the  arrangement  of  the  Danish  high  school  I  can  not  enter  upon  that, 
for  everything  human  fares  as  we  do.  We  must  be  born  before  it  can  be  known 
what  caps  will  fit  our  heads,  to  say  nothing  of  how  high  a  destiny  we  shall  have 
and  what  knowledge  we  may  be  able  to  acquire.  I  should  not  even  have  men- 
tioned this  matter,  if  we  had  not  become  so  perverted  in  the  "  schools  for 
death  "  that  we  can  scarcely  imagine  a  school  whose  whole  life  is  not  mapped  out 
before  it  begins.  This  can  easily  be  done  with  the  bookish  art,  which  consists 
in  memorizing  a  certain  number  of  glossaries  and  rules,  and  at  its  best  in  study- 
ing and  imitating  such  unchangeable  and  dead  things  as  books.  But  just  as 
this  method  is  impossible  of  application  to  the  development  of  life,  which  pre- 
cludes stagnation  and  can  follow  no  rules  but  those  of  nature,  so  neither  can  it 
be  applied  to  education,  which  must  adjust  itself  to  life  as  it  really  is." 

Grundtvig  does,  however,  indicate  the  general  lines  along  which 
he  thinks  the  institution  should  operate: 

One  can  therefore  say  that  at  a  people's  civic  high  school  in  our  and  our 
children's  time  there  ought,  as  far  as  possible,  to  be  opportunity  for  learning 
foreign  languages,  mathematics,  history,  and  everything  that  an  individual 
has  a  desire  for  and  longs  to  study,  either  for  the  sake  of  its  usefulness  or 
enjoyment.* 

The  chief  purpose,  however,  the  living  unifying  soul  of  such  a 
school,  Grundtvig  says,  can  not  be  described.  Poetically  he  feels 
it  to  be  a  life-giving,  light-spreading,  heart-warming  function,  but 
it  defies  schematic  representation.  One  thing  is  clear  to  him,  that 
books  and  all  that  resembles  them  should  play  as  small  and  unim- 
portant a  role  as  possible  in  the  people's  high  school,  where  the  aim 
must  by  no  means  be  "  examinations  and  a  livelihood,"  but  culture 
and  enlightenment.  In  order  to  know  what  culture  should  be  at- 
tained, it  is  necessary  to  ask  what  an  educated  citizen  should  know 
in  order  to  be  able  to  serve  the  State  with  efficiency.  As  parts  of 
such  knowledge  and  culture  he  mentions  especially — 

a  clear  notion  of  civic  society  and  the  conditions  of  its  welfare,  an  apprecia- 
tion of  the  national  characteristics  of  his  people,  sincere  devotion  to  "  King 

»  Grundtvig,  op.  cit.,  p.  39. 
*Idem,  p.  13. 

'  Grundtvig,  Akademiet  1  Soer,  p. 
*  Idem,  p.  60. 
3334<'_15 6 


80  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

and  fatherland,"  ability  to  express  himself  orally  in  his  mother  tongue,  with 
ease  and  vigor,  freedom  and  propriety,  and,  finally,  a  definite  knowledge  of 
what  we  have  and  what  we  lack,  based  upon  reliable  reports  on  the  conditions 
of  the  country/ 

Curriculum  and  methods. — From  these  and  other  passages  in  his 
writings  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  fairly  definite  idea  of  the  curricu- 
lum and  methods  which  Grundtvig  had  in  mind  for  his  cherished 
institution.  In  the  very  first  place  must  be  put  the  mother  tongue. 
For  the  school  was  to  be  distinctly  Danish,  not  Latin,  nor  German. 
By  the  mother  tongue  as  an  element  in  the  curriculum  Grundtvig 
means  training  in  free  and  forceful  expression,  appreciation  for 
folk  songs,  familiarity  with  the  ancient  Danish  myths,  legends, 
arid  epics,  and  also  an  introduction  to  modern  Danish  writers.  The 
second  large  element  in  the  curriculum  was  to  be  history,  especially 
of  Denmark,  but  also  of  Christianity  and  the  world.  Other  subjects 
definitely  suggested  are  economics,  embracing  a  study  of  the  re- 
sources, industries,  and  economic  activities  of  Denmark,  and  civics, 
with  special  reference  to  national  and  communal  government  in 
Denmark,  in  order  to  prepare  for  intelligent  participation  in  these 
forms  of  activity. 

The  uniqueness  of  the  new  institution,  however,  was  to  be  in  its 
method.  As  has  been  noted,  books  were  to  be  used  as  little  as  pos- 
sible. Grundtvig  came  to  have  an  almost  unreasonable  hatred  of 
books  as  school  implements.  He  held  that  the  constant  application 
to  books  resulted  in  a  bookworm  existence  and  severance  from  ordi- 
nary interests.  In  the  new  school,  therefore,  human  speech,  instead 
of  books,  was  to  be  the  means  of  imparting  spirit  and  ideas.  In- 
formal lectures,  without  notes,  was  his  ideal  of  method;  talks,  with 
a  large  human  element  in  them,  and  conviction  born  of  personal 
experience.  The  lectures  ought  furthermore  to  be  given  in  a  lan- 
guage that  the  people  could  understand.  Grundtvig  virtually  created 
a  new  Danish  speech.  He  broke  away  from  the  academic  language 
of  the  day,  and  from  his  intimate  knowledge  of  Danish,  as  spoken 
by  the  people,  he  built  up  a  language  which,  in  diction  and  idioms, 
was  felt  to  be  the  people's  own.  In  this  language  he  wrote,  and  in 
this  language  he  wished  the  work  in  his  people's  high  school  to  be 
done.  By  hearing  and  speaking  such  idiomatic  Danish,  not  by 
grammatical  drill  nor  continuous  essay  writing,  the  young  people 
would  be  taught  to  use  and  love  their  mother  tongue.  Grundtvig 
says  that  "  a  genuine  Danish  high  school  will  make  it  possible  for 
our  descendants  after  hundreds  of  years  to  feel,  think,  and  speak 
Danish." 

1  Grundtvig,  Akademiet  i  Soer,  p.  61, 


ORIGIN   OF   THE   PEOPLE 's   HIGH   SCHOOLS.  81 

Another  characteristic  of  method  was  to  be  the  nationalistic  ap- 
proach to  all  studies.  Whether  the  subject  matter  be  literature,  his- 
tory, economics,  or  civics,  the  bearing  of  it  all  on  Denmark  was  to 
receive  the  emphasis.  History  was  to  be  presented,  not  critically  but 
culturally,  to  show  the  progress  of  the  race  and  for  the  light  that  it 
has  to  cast  on  present  problems.  Economics  and  civics  were  not  to 
be  taught  theoretically  by  the  agency  of  textbooks  and  statistics,  but 
by  having  men  of  large  knowledge  of  the  country,  its  activities  and 
institutions,  talk  to  the  young  people  and  discuss  matters  with  them 
personally.  There  were  to  be  no  examinations  of  any  kind.  It  was 
not  Grundtvig's  idea  that  the  high  school  should  prepare  its  students 
for  any  learned  studies.  The  culture  was  to  be  sought  for  its  own 
value,  and  the  work  of  the  school  must  consequently  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  have  worth  and  attractiveness  in  itself.  The  instruc- 
tion was  intended  for  grown-up  young  men  who  were  already  en- 
gaged in  some  life  work,  and  the  purpose  of  the  high  school  was  not 
to  change  their  vocation.  They  were  to  return  to  their  work,  but  with 
a  greater  inner  jo}^,  greater  desire  to  work,  greater  love  for  country, 
and  greater  appreciation  for  a  higher,  more  ideal  conception  of  work 
and  life.^ 

Place  in  the  educational  system. — Grundtvig  does  not  seem  to 
have  thought  out  clearly  the  place  of  the  people's  high  school  in 
the  scheme  of  education.  At  times  he  speaks  of  a  school  for  citizen- 
ship, which  all  the  people  should  attend,  where  they  would  learn 
to  know  and  love  their  mother  tongue  and  country,  and  thus  be 
fitted  f  OBI  their  duties  as  citizens.  In  speaking  of  various  types  of 
schools,  he  says  it  is  the  school  for  citizenship  he  wishes  to  dwell  on 
especially — 

inasmuch  as  it  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  common  to  us  all.  All  of  us  can 
and  should  be  intelligent  and  useful  Danish  citizens,  but  clearly  only  a  very 
few  at  a  time  should  be  professors  and  learned  men.  But  while  we  have  more 
than  suflScient  schools  for  training  pastors  and  professors,  we  have  no  schools 
at  all  to  train  Danish  citizens.' 

This  training  for  citizenship  he  thinks  the  existing  schools  are 
absolutely  unfitted  to  give.  Therefore  there  is  a  deficiency  in  the 
school  system. 

Even  though  the  rest  of  our  school  system  be  excellent  and  adapted  to  our 
purposes,  it  is  still  very  deficient  as  long  as  we  do  not  have  a  high  school  for 
that  social  and  civic  life  in  which  we  all  can  and  should  partake.'  This  must, 
moreover,  be  considered  the  natural  root  and  source  of  all  our  endeavors,  so 
much  so  that  if  the  demands  of  this  civic  life  are  despised  and  neglected  all 
other  enlightenment  will  become  lifeless  in  itself  as  well  as  fatal  to  the  people 
and  destructive  to  the  Kingdom.' 

1  Cf.  Hollmann.  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  45, 
*  Grundtvig,  Skolen  for  Livet,  p.  21. 


82  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

A  school  for  leaders. — Especially  does  Grundtvig^  see  the  need  of 
a  school  of  citizenship  and  a  common  folk  culture  for  that  portion 
of  the  population  which  are  to  be  leaders,  but  do  not  study  for  a 
professional  career.  As  has  been  noted  in  our  survey  of  Danish 
education,  the  differentiation  between  elementary  and  secondary  edu- 
cation was  made  very  early  at  this  time,  in  fact  generally  upon  the 
child's  entrance  into  school.  The  kind  of  education  a  child  was  to 
receive  was  determined  by  the  type  of  school  he  entered  and  this 
again  by  the  social  position  of  his  parents.  Once  registered  in  the 
elementary  school,  his  fate  was  sealed.  His  cultural  opportunities, 
as  far  as  school  was  concerned,  would  terminate  at  the  age  of  con- 
firmation. This  was  the  fate  of  the  masses  of  the  people.  To  be 
sure  the  University  of  Copenhagen  was  always  open  to  all,  regard- 
less of  academic  preparations,  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that,  by  reason  of 
its  nature  and  method,  the  work  carried  on  there,  even  if  it  were  all 
that  might  be  expected  of  it,  could  never  become  an  appreciable 
means  of  culture  for  any  but  the  academically  trained.  Therefore, 
barred  from  the  secondary  schools  by  a  too  early  differentiation  and 
from  the  cultural  opportunities  of  the  university  by  lack  of  prepara- 
tion, the  nonacademic  people  were  living  in  intellectual  and  cultural 
destitution.     Grundtvig  says : 

The  difficulty  is  that  few  or  no  places  have  a  high  school  for  scientific  and 
civic  training  of  the  people,  which  can  give  a  modicum  of  culture  to  those 
people  who  do  not  receive  academic  training,  but  who  desire  to  belong  to  the 
cultured  classes.^ 

In  such  a  school — 

all  those  officers  of  State  who  do  not  need  learning,  but  life,  vision,  and  practical 
ability,  and  all  those  people  who  desire  culture  may  have  the  desired  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  themselves  and  learn  to  know  each  other.' 

A  school  for  the  common  people. — A  school  of  this  type,  Grundtvig 
thought,  was  necessary  not  for  leaders  only,  however.  It  had  a  func- 
tion to  perform  for  the  ordinary  citizenry. 

If  now  a  Danish  high  school,  as  kingly,  free,  and  popular  as  possible,  is  neces- 
sary for  training  officers  of  State,  pray,  is  it  less  so  for  that  large  portion  of  the 
people  who  can  not  or  do  not  desire  to  hold  office,  but  who  must  support  them- 
selves and  the  rest?  That  this  root  and  stem  of  the  people,  renters  and  own- 
ers, great  and  small,  mechanics  of  all  kinds,  seamen,  and  merchants,  need  no 
other  enlightenment  or  culture  than  that  obtained  behind  the  plow,  in  the 
workshop,  in  the  tops,  or  in  the  merchant's  booth,  may  be  the  thought  of  bar- 
barians and  tyrants.  Such,  however,  has  never  been  the  northern  mode  of 
thought,  either  among  the  kings  or  the  people,  and  it  could  never  be,  for  here, 
if  nowhere  else,  it  is  true  that  we  are  all  of  one  blood,  so  that  the  same  capacity 
for  culture  is  found  in  the  cottage  as  in  the  palace.' 

1  Quoted  by  Schroder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  22. 

2  Idem,  p.  24. 

"Grundtvig,  Akademiet  i  Soer,  p.  29. 


ORIGIN   OF  THE  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOLS.  83 

Source  of  the  people'^s  high-school  idea, — It  is  not  laiown  whether 
or  not  Grundtvig  owes  the  origin  of  his  people's  high  school  idea  to 
any  other  source  than  himself.  A  possible  influence  of  Rousseau  via 
Germany  has  been  pointed  out.    Nordal-Peterson  says : 

During  a  visit  in  eastern  Prussia,  Herder,  one  of  Rousseau's  admirers,  saw 
how  oppressed  nations  suffered  under  a  foreign  yoke.  Tlirough  the  influence 
of  Rousseau's  ideas  the  thought  comes  to  him  that  one  might  help  the  oppressed 
toward  a  national  awakening  by  erecting  a  national  young  people's  school, 
and  he  outlines  the  plan  in  one  of  his  books.  Herder  never  realized  his  plan, 
but  it  is  probable  that  Grundtvig  had  read  the  book  in  question.  His  "  World's 
History"  (1812)  shows  that  he  had  read  Herder  with  interest,  and  it  is  not 
impossible  that  from  his  writings  Grundtvig  had  received  an  impulse  toward  his 
great  idea.^ 

Estimate  of  Grundtvig^s  influence. — Whether  the  people's  high- 
school  idea  be  original  with  Grundtvig  or  not,  the  fact  remains  that 
he  not  only  developed  and  propagated  the  idea,  but  presented  a 
philosophy  of  life  and  education  which  has  become  the  pedagogical 
foundation  of  the  schools.  While  the  chief  emphasis  in  his  writings 
is  upon  the  service  of  a  people's  high  school  in  the  awakening  and 
regeneration  of  the  nation,  he  also  stresses  the  value  of  such  a  school 
for  the  young  people  themselves,  in  helping  them  to  realize  them- 
selves most  fully.  In  fact,  as  Grundtvig  saw  it,  the  latter  service  of 
the  school  is  a  prerequisite  for  the  former.  Ludvig  Schroder,  one 
of  the  closest  students  of  Grundtvig,  compares  him  with  Rousseau.^ 
As  Rousseau  proclaimed  the  "  gospel  of  childhood,"  so  Grundtvig 
proclaimed  the  "  gospel  of  youth." 

As  childhood  has  its  own  interests  and  prerogatives  and  is  not  a 
mere  transition  period  to  becoming  grown  up,  so  youth  has  a  right 
to  an  independent  value  and  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  meaningless 
passing  over  from  childhood  to  manhood.  The  period  of  youth  is  a 
most  unhappey  one  in  the  lives  of  many.  It  is  a  time  when  intellec- 
tual and  moral  problems  beset  the  young  person,  when  he  is  wrestling 
with  the  question  of  his  life  mission  and  perhaps  that  of  his  life 
mate.  It  frequently  becomes  a  mere  existence  without  content,  a 
drifting  about  from  one  impulse  to  another.  Grundtvig  held  that, 
if  youth  is  to  be  a  joyous  and  fruitful  period,  the  individual  must 
come  to  his  rights  and  be  wisely  guided  in  his  aspirations  in  order 
that  his  personality  may  be  built  on  a  sound  foundation  and  de- 
veloped in  all  its  capacities.  Here  was  the  opportunity  for  a  peo- 
ple's high  school. 

Hollmann  has  pointed  out  a  kinship  with  Ruskin's  ideas :  ^ 

Grundtvig's  view  of  life  has  much  in  common  with  that  of  Ruskin,  who, 
continuing  in  a  sense  the  ideas  of  Grundtvig,  would  make  a  festival  of  life  as 
a  whole  and  make  work  secondary.     Both  thinkers  are  as  one  in  striving  for 

1  Nordal-Petersen,  Danmarks  Hojskoler,  p.  3. 
•  Schroder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  Ch.  I. 
« Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  26. 


84  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

this,  that  life  may  be  lived  completely,  that  personality  may  be  uniformly 
developed,  and  that  all  people  may  obtain  a  deeper  appreciation  of  life's  values. 
But  while  Ruskin  nearly  always  moves  on  the  border  line  of  the  impossible 
in  his  requirements,  Grundtvig  is  a  practical  man,  who  knows  what  he  wants 
and  what  is  possible  of  realization.  Grundtvig  wants  nothing  else  than  this — 
to  give  the  individual  his  youth,  a  time  in  which  he  may  live  in  the  realm  of 
beautiful  and  noble  aspirations. 

That  Grundtvig  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  cul- 
tural life  of  his  country  is  evident  when  intelligent  students  soberly 
apply  to  him  such  epithets  as  "Prophet  of  the  north"  and  "The 
greatest  folk  educator  of  the  north."  Even  his  unsympathetic  critic, 
George  Brandes,  estimates  him  as  the  largest  cultural  factor  in  Den- 
mark in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  German  Hollmann  describes 
him  as — 

a  man  of  large  historic  vision,  with  creative  thoughts  and  a  depth  and 
breadth  of  feeling  which  was  capable  of  embracing  his  people,  the  nation  in  its 
future  development.  It  may  appear  as  if  the  wheel  of  history  moves  according 
to  eternally  fixed  laws.  Occasionally,  however,  a  strong  man  may  take  a  hand 
and  strive  to  lift  it  out  of  its  rut.  If  he  is  fortunate,  others  lend  a  hand  and 
progress  takes  a  new  course.  Grundtvig  grasped  the  wheel  of  historical  de- 
velopment and  gave  it  a  new  direction.  Without  him  there  would  now  pre- 
sumably be  no  Danish  Kultur,  and  therefol'e  he  is  a  genius  in  the  eyes  of  his 
people.^ 


Chapter  VII. 

GROWTH  OF  THE  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


I.  THE  FIRST  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

Grundtvig'^s  plan  futile. — Grundtvig  had  in  mind  the  establishment 
of  one  large  people's  high  school  for  the  whole  country.  It  was  to  be 
a  school  with  a  faculty  of  scholars  on  a  par  with  those  of  the  uni- 
versity, from  whom  streams  of  influence  might  flow  forth  to  refresh 
and  regenerate  the  nation.  For  a  long  time  he  cherished  the  plan 
that  the  richly  endowed  academy  at  Soro  might  be  transformed  into 
such  a  high  school.  For  this  he  wrote  and  labored  assiduously.  He 
succeeded  finally  in  gaining  the  favor  of  King  Christian  VIII  and 
Queen  Caroline  Amalie  for  the  plan,  but  the  King  died  in  1848,  be- 
fore the  idea  could  be  realized.  The  party  which  subsequently  came 
into  power  was  "  too  much  bound  by  classical  tradition  to  believe  in  a 
characteristically  Danish  culture."  ^  Grundtvig's  efforts  for  the  Soro 
plan  thus  came  to  naught,  and  the  idea  has  never  been  realized, 
although  it  is  even  to-day  a  live  subject  of  discussion. 

1  Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  4. 
■Begtrup.  Folkehojskolen  i  Danmark,  p.  4. 


GROWTH   OF   THE  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL.  85 

Scene  of  the  ftr^t  school. — Meanwhile  the  seed  which  Grundtvig 
had  sown  took  root  and  began  to  bear  fruit  in  another  way.  Although 
his  efforts  to  have  his  cherished  people's  institution  established  by 
royal  favor  proved  futile,  the  essential  people's  high  school  idea  was 
being  realized  by  the  rank  and  file  of  the  common  people.  The  scene 
was  north  Schleswig.  This  was  at  that  time  a  part  of  Denmark,  and 
the  people  were  becoming  aware  of  the  danger  of  German  influence, 
which  threatened  to  destroy  their  national  identity.  The  situation  is 
well  described  by  Begtrup ;  ^ 

North  Schleswig,  whose  population  was  Danish,  had  been  governed  for  many 
years  by  German-trained  officials,  who  had  studied  at  Kiel.  When  the  nation- 
alistic movement  began  to  be  felt  in  Europe  the  citizens  of  north  Schleswig  also 
awakened  to  a  consciousness  of  their  Danish  character  and  sought  to  free  them- 
selves from  the  spiritual  guardianship  of  the  German  officials.  Then  began  a 
cultural  struggle  in  which  the  majority  of  the  educated  classes  were  found  in 
the  German  camps.  Friends  of  the  common  people  perceived  that  it  was  neces- 
sary for  the  plain  people  to  be  equipped  with  a  better  education  in  order  that 
they  might  themselves  defend  the  rights  of  their  Danish  speech.  Such  education 
must  necessarily  be  given  in  Danish,  since  the  people  did  not  know  any  foreign 
language,  and  its  content  must  serve  to  strengthen  their  appreciation  of  national 
values.     Here  was  a  practical  need  for  Grundtvig's  school  idea. 

The  leaders  of  this  nationalizing  movement,  among  whom  Chris- 
tian Flor,  professor  of  Danish  at  the  University  of  Kiel,  was  a  promi- 
nent figure,  had  become  familiar  with  Grundtvig's  ideas  and  were 
much  influenced  by  his  writings.  When  Grundtvig's  request  and 
plan  for  a  high  school  at  Soro  appeared  in  1840  and  had  been  favor- 
ably received  by  Flor,  a  citizen  of  north  Schleswig  pointed  out  in  a 
newspaper  article  that  nowhere  was  a  high  school  such  as  that  pro- 
posed more  needed  than  in  north  Schleswig. 

The  first  school  established  at  Rodding. — Other  interested  citizens 
gave  the  idea  their  support,  stock  was  subscribed,  and  in  1843  the 
Schleswig  Association  was  formed  with  the  erection  of  a  people's 
high  school  as  one  of  its  chief  aims.  A  suitable  property  was  pur- 
chased at  Rodding,  and  upon  application  to  King  Christian  VIII 
permission  was  granted  in  1844  for  the  establishment  of  the  school. 
In  the  plan  which  accompanied  the  application,  appeared  the  follow- 
ing passage  relating  to  the  purpose  and  scope  of  the  school : 

The  aim  we  have  set  before  us  is  to  found  an  institution  where  peasant 
and  citizen  may  acquire  such  knowledge  and  accomplishments  as  may  minister 
to  his  usefulness  or  enjoyment,  with  reference  not  so  much  to  his  particular 
vocation  and  work  as  to  his  function  as  his  country's  son  and  citizen  of  the 
State.  The  institution  should  have,  therefore,  a  beneficent  influence  upon  his 
private  and  home  life,  as  well  as  upon  his  public  and  civic  activity.  We  call 
it  a  high  school  because  it  is  not  to  be  an  ordinary  boy's  school,  but  an  educa- 
tional institution  partly  for  young  men  past  the  age  of  confirmation  and  partly 

1  Begtrup,  Folkehojskolen  i  Danmark,  p.  4. 


86  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

for  full-gi-own  boys  and  men.  We  call  it  a  people's  high  school  because  persons 
of  every  station  may  attend  it,  even  if  it  is  especially  arranged  for  the  rural 
class  and  expects  its  students  from  that  source.^ 

The  plan  further  provided  that  the  board  of  directors  should  con- 
sist of  seven  members,  three  of  whom  must  always  belong  to  the 
rural  class.  The  curriculum  was  to  comprise  Danish  language  and 
literature,  history,  civics,  arithmetic,  geometry,  drawing,  surveying, 
German,  Swedish,  natural  sciences,  singing,  and  gymnastics.  Each 
semester  was  to  be  complete  in  itself,  but  the  work  so  planned  that  a 
complete  course  extended  over  two  years.  The  school  began  its  ac- 
tivity in  November,  1844,  with  20  students  and  2  teachers.  Its  prin- 
cipal was  John  Wegener,  a  university  man  and  graduate  in  theology. 

Career  and  influence  of  the  school. — The  school  at  Rodding  expe- 
rienced a  checkered  career.  Its  finances  gave  the  most  trouble.  At 
times  its  friends  despaired  of  maintaining  it,  but  by  earnest  en- 
deavors it  was  possible  to  keep  the  school  going.  Much  credit  for 
this  is  due  to  Flor,  who  gave  up  his  chair  at  Kiel  to  become  its 
principal  for  a  time.  Certain  problems  were  encountered  and  solved 
in  this  school  and  principles  established  that  are  of  general  interest 
in  the  people's  high-school  movement.  The  first  was  the  question  as 
to  whether  the  school  should  be  an  out-and-out  vocational  school  for 
agriculturists,  or  a  school  of  general  culture.  The  original  purpose 
of  the  school  had  been  to  arouse  the  national  spirit  and  save  the 
mother  tongue  from  its  threatened  extinction.  When,  after  the  war 
of  1848-49,  these  ends  were  largely  attained,  many  thought  that  the 
school  no  longer  had  any  sufficient  reason  for  its  existence,  as  origi- 
nally planned,  and  therefore  should  be  transformed  into  an  agricul- 
tural school.  This  party  held  that  if  able  farmers  were  desired,  the 
best  plan  was  to  go  at  the  training  of  farmers  directly  with  a  pure 
agricultural  school.  However,  the  principal  of  the  school,  Sophus 
Hogsbro,  Flor,  and  others  championed  the  cause  of  general  culture 
with  such  ability  that  they  won  the  victory,  and  the  institution  was 
enabled  to  continue  as  a  school  of  the  Grundtvigian  type.  An  inter- 
esting testimony  in  this  connection  came  from  the  able  agricultu- 
ralist, Testdorph,  who  later  became  president  of  the  Royal  Danish 
Agricultural  Society: 

It  is  difficult  to  render  a  larger  service  to  the  country  than  to  give  wide-awake 
farmers  some  such  an  opportunity  for  a  higher  spiritual  development  as  will 
operate  beneficently  and  fruitfully  for  all  the  people.  We  have  to  do  with  an 
Institution  that  has  successfully  stood  the  test  to  which  it  has  been  subjected. 
We  are  not  dealing  with  projects;  we  know  what  we  are  devoting  our  money 
to ;  we  know  that  we  will  get  it  back  with  high  interest ;  we  know  that  we  are 
really  doing  the  country  a  great  service  by  aiding  the  Rodding  high  school.  Let 
me  add  that  as  nearly  as  I  can  learn,  all  the  foreign  countries  in  which  I  have 

*  Quoted  by  Schroder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  46. 


GROWTH   OF   THE  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL.  87 

traveled  would  grasp  with  eagerness  an  opportunity  such  as  this  to  advance 
in  a  similar  way  the  interests  of  the  backbone  of  the  country,  the  agricultural 
class.* 

Another  attempt  to  modify  the  nature  of  the  school  was  made  by 
the  minister  of  education,  Monrad,  by  suggesting  the  introduction  of 
a  preliminary  examination  which  might  admit  students  to  some 
courses  at  the  agricultural  college  in  Copenhagen.  The  reply  of 
Principal  Hogsbro,  opposing  this  suggestion,  is  based  solidly  upon 
Grundtvigian  high-school  ideas,  and  the  principle  fixed  in  this  case 
became  a  precedent  for  all  future  people's  high  schools : 

The  aim  of  the  school  is  to  awaken  and  nourish  appreciation  for  the  life  of 
the  spirit.  Especially  is  it  concerned  with  increasing  love  of  country  by  giving 
information  about  its  language  and  literature,  nature,  and  history,  its  condi- 
tions in  the  past  and  present.  In  addition,  however,  it  does  not  lay  less  stress 
on  giving  students  love  for  and  knowledge  of  agriculture. 

With  this  aim  the  subjects  of  instruction  can  not  be  the  same  as 
those  required  for  the  "  preliminary  examination,"  nor  the  emphasis 
the  same. 

With  reference  to  method,  too,  the  school  must  be  different  from  the  ordinary 
type.  To  be.  sure,  it  does  not  minimize  the  value  of  positive  knowledge  and  a 
training  of  the  intellect  in  keenness  and  clarity  of  thought;  its  purpose,  how- 
ever, is  essentially  educative,  the  development  of  feeling  and  the  will  being 
considered  more  significant  than  the  training  of  memory  or  intellect.  It  desires 
to  do  for  the  life  of  the  people  what  the  church  desires  for  the  Christian  life. 
Therefore  it  must  lay  emphasis  on  the  concrete,  the  living,  the  stimulating.  An 
hour  of  instruction  in  which  it  has  been  possible  to  arouse  appreciation  for  the 
higher  and  nobler  elements  in  human  life,  or  to  stimulate  to  effective  and  active 
service  in  their  behalf,  is  of  much  greater  importance  in  the  work  of  the  people's 
high  school  than  an  hour  which  has  added  to  one's  store  of  knowledge  or  in 
which  the  intellect  has  learned  to  understand  a  new  grammatical  exposition  or 
a  mathematical  conclusion.  These  forms  of  instruction  are  also  included,  but 
merely  to  serve  the  chief  purpose.  Instruction  is  given,  not  for  school,  but  for 
life.  What  we  wish  for  our  students  is  that  they  might  leave  us  with  a  desire 
to  participate  in  the  work  of  the  world,  the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  material, 
and  with  capacity  to  use  the  means  which  life  offers.  What  they  may  lack  in 
the  form  of  knowledge  they  will  know  how  to  obtain.  As  they  work,  their  intel- 
lects will  receive  that  development  of  which  they  are  capable.  For  such  a 
method  of  instruction  the  preliminary  examination  is  altogether  unsuitable.' 

After  the  war  of  1864,  when  Schleswig  was  wrenched  away  from 
Denmark  by  Germany,  the  school  had  to  be  moved  north  of  the 
new  boundary.  A  place  was  found  for  it  at  Askov,  where,  under 
the  efficient  leadership  of  Ludvig  Schroder,  the  institution  became  a 
power  in  the  cultural  life  of  Denmark.  Its  equipment  and  instruc- 
tion have  been  extended  so  as  to  make  it  the  leading  people's  high 
school  in  the  country. 

1  Quoted  by  Schroder,  op.  clt,  p.  70. 

«  Quoted  by  Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  54. 


88  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

II.  WORK  AND  INFLUENCE  OF  KOLD. 

Deficiencies  of  the  Rodding  peopW^s  high  schoob. — While  Grundt- 
vig's  educational  ideas  were  first  tried  out  in  the  school  at  Rodding, 
it  was  not  there  that  the  characteristic  Danish  people's  high  school 
as  it  exists  to-day  took  its  beginnings.  There  were  several  reasons 
why  this  school  did  not  at  first  wield  the  large  influence  for  a 
people's  culture  that  was  exerted  later  by  this  and  other  schools. 
On  account  of  rather  high  tuition  rates  and  expenses,  only  some 
of  the  well-to-do  farmers'  sons  could  afford  to  attend.  Furthermore, 
a  full  course  extended  over  two  years,  the  summers  included.  It  is 
evident  that  only  comparatively  few  grown  up  men  could  find  it 
possible  to  spend  so  much  time  away  from  their  work.  Again, 
while  the  teachers  at  Rodding  were  inspired  by  love  for  their  work 
and  a  desire  to  lead  the  young  men  out  into  a  new  light,  they  were 
generally  academicians  from  a  higher  station  in  life  and  could  not 
quite  appreciate  the  situation  and  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  peasant 
boys.  Grundtvig  himself,  though  a  man  of  the  people  in  his  in- 
terests and  sympathies,  was  a  partial  stranger  to  the  sons  of  the  soil. 

Kristen  Kold  {1816-1870) . — It  was  left  for  a  shoemaker's  son  to 
meet  the  common  peasantry  on  their  own  ground  and  by  the  attrac- 
tiveness of  his  personality  drew  them  to  cultural  studies  pursued 
under  conditions  that  were  practically  within  the  reach  of  all.  This 
man  was  Kristen  Kold  (1816-1870).  While  still  a  child  in  his 
humble  home  by  the  Limfjord,  in  west  Jutland,  he  learned  the 
magic  power  of  the  spoken  word,  which  he  himself  later  possessed 
in  a  remarkable  degree.  When  he  and  his  brothers  and  sisters  be- 
came tired  of  play  and  unruly,  their  mother  would  often  call  them 
to  her  and  tell  them  a  story  which  would  have  a  wonderful  effect 
on  their  conduct.    Kold  says  of  this: 

Always,  when  she  had  told  us  a  story,  we  would  become  happy  and  begin  to 
play  again — to  build  up  instead  of  tear  down.  At  that  time  I  could  not  under- 
stand how  a  little  fable  about  Great  Peter  or  Little  Peter,  or  what  it  might 
be,  could  have  power  to  make  us  well-behaved  and  happy.  Later,  however, 
I  gradually  came  to  understand  the  secret,  that  the  word  upon  our  tongue 
possesses  this  power  over  children.^ 

Education. — Kold  participated  in  the  ordinary  elementary  school- 
ing of  his  day  and  ranked  at  the  head  of  his  class.  At  11  he  was  to 
begin  learning  his  father's  trade,  but  was  so  awkward  with  the  awl 
that  his  father  despaired  of  his  ever  amounting  to  anything.  After 
one  and  a  half  days'  apprenticeship  his  mother  took  him  out  of  the 
shop.  The  boy's  whole  desire  now  was  to  be  a  teacher.  At  the  age 
of  13,  after  giving  a  trial  lesson  in  a  rural  school  before  the  dean 
and  the  children's  parents,  he  was  appointed  monitor  to  teach  chil- 

1  Quoted  by  Austlid,  Ein  Folkelaerar,  p.  22. 


GROWTH   OF   THE  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL.  89 

dren  larger  than  himself  and  about  as  old.  His  work,  however,  was  a 
decided  success.  After  confirmation  he  served  as  tutor '  for  three 
years,  when,  having  reached  the  required  age  of  18,  he  entered  the 
normal  school  at  Snested.  He  seems  not  to  have  profited  much  by 
the  instruction  there  until  a  religious  revival  aroused  him  spiritually 
and  intellectually  and  made  him  an  eager  student. 

Teaching. — After  graduation  from  the  normal  school,  Kold  spent 
some  years  in  tutoring,  and  participated  in  some  revivals  in  which 
he  began  to  experience  his  own  powers  of  speech.  At  this  time  he 
also  read  some  of  Ingemann's  romances.  He  saw  how  great  Den- 
mark had  once  been,  and  how  low  it  had  sunk,  and  was  seized  with 
a  desire  to  lend  a  hand  in  raising  it  again.  "  Oh,  that  1  possessed  the 
kind  of  words  that  are  necessary  to  make  Denmark  great,  and  strong, 
and  happy !  "  ^  Moving  to  southern  Jutland,  where  he  continued  as 
tutor,  he  found  the  people  dead  to  patriotic  impulses,  and  having  read 
still  more  historical  romances,  he  felt  that  he  must  do  something  to 
stir  the  people.  "  I  felt  now  that  I  could  have  no  peace  until  I  had 
gotten  this  work  started — to  raise  Denmark  again  to  what  it  had 
once  been."  2  Kold  had  an  idea  that  much  could  be  and  must  be 
done  with  the  rising  generation.  Therefore  as  an  experiment  during 
the  winter  of  1840-41,  he  gathered  about  him  15  young  men  every 
Wednesday  evening  and  read  to  them  chiefly  from  Ingemann's  ro- 
mances. They  talked  together  about  the  contents  and  sang  patriotic 
songs.  This  was  something  new,  and  people  laughed  at  it.  But  his 
experience  with  these  boys  gave  Kold  the  idea  which  he  developed 
later  into  his  high-school  plan. 

Varied  experiences. — Kold  became  dissatisfied  with  the  methods 
in  vogue  in  elementary  instruction  and  instituted  a  reform  in  his 
own  work.  Instead  of  compelling  the  children  to  memorize  vast  por- 
tions of  textbooks,  he  told  the  contents  to  the  children  in  story  form. 
The  children  were  delighted,  remembered  perfeotly  what  he  told 
them,  and  then  the  process  of  learning  which  before  had  been  so 
laborious  took  care  of  itself. 

This  revolutionary  method,  however,  brought  him  into  difficulties 
with  pastor,  bishop,  and  department,  and  the  antagonism  became  so 
great  that  he  soon  found  himself  without  an  appointment.  Saddened 
by  this  opposition  and  denial  of  opportunity  to  do  the  only  work  he 
wished  and  was  able  to  do,  he  learned  bookbinding,  and  went  to 
Smyrna  as  a  missionary's  servant  and  helper.  Terminating  his  serv- 
ices with  the  missionary,  he  spent  some  years  there  at  his  trade.  The 
longing  for  his  native  land  became  too  great,  however,  and  he 
returned,  walking  from  Trieste,  some  800  miles,  and  drawing  his 
belongings  in  a  little  wagon.    This  experience  gave  him  an  excellent 

lAustlid,  op.  cit.,  p.  43. 
*Idem,  p.  44. 


90  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

opportunity  to  study  the  common  life  of  the  people  in  the  sections 
through  which  he  passed.  He  enlisted  for  the  war  of  1848-1850,  but 
finding  himself  poorly  adapted  for  musket  drill,  he  resigned.  The 
war  served  him  a  purpose,  however,  for  it  awakened  Denmark,  and 
he  could  now  see  how  a  spiritual  force  operates  on  a  large  scale  with 
a  whole  people;  previously  he  had  seen  it  only  in  the  case  of 
individuals. 

Founds  a  people^s  high  school. — Kold  burned  with  desire  to  help 
perpetuate  the  spirit  which  the  war  had  aroused  in  his  people,  but 
realized  that  sporadic  efforts  with  a  speech  here  and  a  speech  there 
would  avail  but  little.  His  experiences,  notably  his  Wednesday  even- 
ing class  of  boys,  taught  him  that  he  must  gather  the  young  people 
in  a  school  in  order  that  they  might  be  under  his  continuous  influence 
for  a  considerable  time.  Thus  only  could  he  hope  to  effect  an  awak- 
ening and  build  up  an  enthusiasm  that  would  last.  By  the  aid  of 
Grundtvig  and  other  interested  friends,  he  was  enabled  to  make  a 
humble  beginning  of  a  school  in  1851  at  Ryslinge,  in  Fyen.  A  pro- 
spectus of  the  new  school  announced  that  instruction  would  be  given 
only  during  the  winter,  from  November  1  to  April  1.  Tuition,  in- 
cluding board  and  lodging,  was  fixed  at  60  kroner  for  the  entire  five 
months.  The  instruction  was  to  embrace  an  outline  of  general,  Bible, 
and  church  history,  northern  mythology  and  history  of  Denmark, 
geography,  especially  of  Denmark,  selected  readings  from  Danish 
literature,  and  singing.  Instruction  was  also  to  be  given  in  the  com- 
mon-school branches  with  a  view  to  their  practical  use  in  life.^  The 
school  began  its  work  with  15  students  and  2  teachers.  Kold  had  at 
last  entered  upon  the  realization  of  his  cherished  dreams,  and  was 
happy. 

Characteristics  of  Kold^s  school. — The  first  year  the  students  at 
Kold's  school  ranged  in  age  from  14  upward,  but  this  year's  ex- 
perience taught  him  that  for  such  a  school  the  students  must  be 
grown  up,  i.  e.,  18  years  of  age  or  more,  as  Grundtvig  had  maintained. 
The  work  with  the  younger  boys  was  not  nearly  so  satisfactory  as 
with  the  older.  After  the  first  year  18  was  set  as  the  minimum  age 
for  entrance.  This  became  the  settled  policy  for  all  later  schools. 
Another  characteristic  feature  of  this  school  was  the  short  term,  only 
five  months  during  the  winter.  On  this  point,  too,  Kold's  school  set 
a  precedent  which  has  been  followed  by  the  other  schools.  It  is  the 
time  when^  men  can  most  easily  be  spared  from  the  work  of  the 
farms.  Likewise,  the  expenses  at  Ryslinge  were  set  so  low  as  to  bring 
the  school  within  the  reach  of  all  young  men  of  energy.  The  ex- 
penses were  only  12  kroner  a  month.  At  Rodding  the  amount  was 
40  kroner.^    The  intimate  character  of  the  association  of  teachers 

1  Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  59. 

■These  amounts  equal  about  $3.25  and  $10.80,  respectively. 


GROWTH   OF   THE  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL.  91 

and  students  is  shown  by  the  arrangement  whereby  Kold  and  his 
assistant  teacher  slept  with  the  boys  in  one  large  sleeping  room.  The 
boys  could  thus  listen  to  the  teachers'  conversation  about  worthy 
things  until  they  fell  asleep. 

KoldJ's  continued  work  and  inftuence. — After  two  years  Kold 
moved  his  school  to  Dalby,  where  he  remained  for  six  years.  Here 
he  experienced  a  hard  struggle  before  winning  the  people's  favor 
for  his  school  venture.  Force  was  given  to  the  opposition  also  by 
Kold's  activity  in  behalf  of  elementary  schools  conducted  in  accord- 
ance with  his  ideals  as  opposed  to  the  spiritless  memorizing  and  fact 
cramming  of  the  public  schools.  While  his  influence  widened,  his 
enemies  also  increased.  By  a  protest  of  these  to  the  ministry,  signed 
by  344  persons,  the  State  aid  of  800  kroner,  which  Kold's  school  had 
been  receiving,  was  held  up  for  a  year.  Kold's  life  was  embittered 
also  by  newspaper  attacks  and  the  dire  poverty  to  which  he  was  re- 
duced. However,  he  was  warmly  defended  by  friends  and  students, 
who  sent  a  counter  protest  to  the  ministry.  Finally  the  local  school 
commission  served  notice  that  they  would  inspect  the  school  and 
judge  for  themselves  of  its  work  and  merits.  They  came  as  avowed 
enemies  of. the  school,  nine  men  strong,  including  the  county  chair- 
man, two  deans,  and  the  parish  pastor.  They  proposed  to  examine 
each  individual  student  in  the  several  subjects,  as  was  the  customary 
method  of  procedure  in  the  public  schools;  but  this  Kold  resisted 
with  force  and  dignity. 

No,  Dean  Rohmann ;  if  that  is  the  method  the  commission  desires  to  employ, 
to  examine  my  boys  one  by  one,  then  I  must  inform  you  that  I  do  not  want 
any  examination;  and  the  boys  do  not  want  it,  either.  They  are  here  on  their 
own  account,  pay  their  own  school  expenses,  and  we  have  no  right  to  force 
them.    If  that  is  your  plan,  the  school  is  hereby  closed  from  this  day  on/ 

According  to  Kold's  philosophy,  the  function  of  his  school  was 
essentially  to  arouse  his  boys  spiritually  and  intellectually.  To  test 
the  results  of  such  work  by  an  examination  of  the  amount  of  facts 
acquired  by  his  students  was  unfair  and  contrary  to  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  school.  Kold  was  then  asked  to  proceed  with  the 
work  of  the  school  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  dean  put  questions  to 
the  school  as  a  whole.  The  results  were  surprising  and  pleasing. 
The  students  gave  evidence  of  a  remarkable  fund  of  knowledge 
despite  the  fact  that  they  had  not  been  cramming  books.  During  the 
examination  in  general  history  the  dean  put  the  question,  "  Can  you 
tell  me  the  name  of  the  Roman  general  that  defeated  Attila  ?  "  This 
staggered  the  school  for  a  moment,  but  a  little  fellow  answered, 
"Aetius."  "This  answer  saved  our  school,"  Kold  said  afterwards.^ 
The  result  of  the  inspection  was  entirely  satisfactory.    The  teachers 

»Austlid,  op.  cit,  p.  117.  « Idem,  p.  118. 


92  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

and  students  were  praised,  the  delayed  State  aid  was  forthcoming, 
and  the  standing  of  the  school  was  assured. 

Subsequently  Kold  built  a  still  larger  school  at  Dalum,  where  the 
number  of  students  increased  to  more  than  100.  Upon  manifold  re- 
quests of  girls  to  attend  the  school  he  started  in  1863  a  three  months' 
summer  course  for  young  women.  This  proved  so  successful  that  it 
became  a  permanent  feature,  and  has  since  been  an  essential  part  of 
nearly  all  people's  high  schools. 

It  is  thus  seen  how  the  character  of  Kold's  schools  established  the 
policy  of  the  Danish  people's  high  schools  in  the  matter  of  the  stu- 
dents' mature  age,  the  five  months'  course,  low  expenses,  a  summer 
course  for  girls,  and  intimate  association  of  teachers  and  students. 
It  was  due  to  his  influence  also  that  stimulation  and  development 
of  personality  and  spiritual  life  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
function  of  the  schools.  At  a  meeting  in  Copenhagen  in  1866,  at 
which  Kold  was  the  chief  speaker,  he  closed  his  address  with  these 
words : 

I  do  not  know  as  much  about  enlightenment  as  I  do  about  enlivenment.  I 
enliven  first,  and  enlighten  afterwards,  or  at  least  enliven  and  enlighten  at  the 
same  time.    This,  I  believe,  is  right,  for  enlivenment  is  what  is  needed. 

He  says  he  learned  this  when  he  worked — 

among  people  who  could  receive  no  enlightenment  before  they  had  been 
enlivened.  They  were  plain  folk  who,  so  to  speak,  knew  nothing  of  enlighten- 
ment. They  needed  to  be  enlivened.  I  believe,  too,  that  the  more  one  learns 
to  know  the  Danish  people,  both  in  and  out  of  Copenhagen,  the  more  one  will 
experience  that  they  can  not  be  truly  enlightened  before  they  have  been  en- 
livened.* 

Estimates  of  Kold. — By  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1870,  Kold  had 
had  some  1,300  students  under  his  charge,  and  a  host  of  other  people 
had  received  lasting  impressions  for  good  from  his  sturdy  person- 
ality. He  became  known  and  loved  throughout  Denmark  as  the  man 
who  had  given  his  life  for  the  spiritual  and  national  regeneration  of 
the  common  people.  Mr.  Thornton,  an  Englishman,  estimates  him 
thus: 

Kold  was  a  sort  of  rustic  blend  of  Socrates  and  Pestalozzi ;  he  had  a  ready 
store  of  idiomatic  Danish,  had  thought  much  of  life  and  its  problems,  had  a 
keen  insight  into  human  character,  possessed  an  unlimited  store  of  illustrations 
and  experiences,  and  was  consumed  by  a  passion  for  communicating  to  others 
what  had  brought  light  and  help  to  himself.' 

Comparing  Kold's  work  and  influence  with  that  of  Grundtvig, 
Dr.  Hollmann  says: 

Measured  by  Grundtvig's  large  ideas  of  a  national  people's  culture,  Kold's 
little  peasant  school  seems  insignificant,  but  history  makes  no  mistake  when 

1  Quoted  by  Schroder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  122. 

2  Thornton,  Schools  Public  and  Private  in  the  North  of  Europe.  English  Special  Re- 
ports, vol.  17,  p.  114. 


GKOWTH   OF   THE   PEOPLE 's   HIGH   SCHOOL.  •  93 

it  attributes  to  the  little  step  forward  in  practical  application  a  decisive  signifi- 
cance in  the  development  of  the  people's  high  schools.  To  Grundtvig  is  due 
the  underlying  thought  of  the  people's  high  school,  but  Kold's  plain  peasant 
school  was  all  that  was  possible  of  realization  under  the  circumstances.  By 
Kold's  powerful  influence,  the  people's  high  school  was  given  a  solid  footing 
among  the  rural  population  of  Denmark.  He  has  given  the  people's  high 
schools  their  external  form  and  has  put  into  practice  the  method  which 
Grundtvig  indicated  within  the  limits  that  circumstances  allowed.^ 

Grundtvig  himself  testified  that  Kold,  in  the  very  best  manner, 
had  transformed  his  ideas  into  realities.^ 

III.  LATER  DEVELOPMENTS. 

Grundtvig'^8  high  school. — The  idea  of  a  large  central  people's 
high  school  was  not  abandoned  after  the  failure  of  the  plan  to  trans- 
form the  Soro  academy  into  a  people's  high  school.  Especially  did 
the  feeling  prevail  that  there  ought  to  be  a  school  where  Grundtvig 
could  make  his  influence  felt.  Accordingly,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
seventieth  birthday,  friends  raised  a  sum  of  money  which  was  pre- 
sented to  him  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a  high  school.  The  chief 
donor  and  most  active  worker  for  the  cause,  C.  D.  Brandt,  came  of 
an  aristocratic  family  in  Copenhagen  and  entertained  large  ideas 
for  the  school.  He  aimed  to  build  not  a  mere  peasants'  school,  such 
as  Kold's,  which  was  being  copied  everywhere.  This  was  to  be  a 
pretentious  institution  where  Grundtvig  might  be  given  a  suitable 
chair. 

Grundtvig's  wife  was  opposed  to  this  aristocratic  notion.  She 
wanted  a  school  of  the  Kold  type,  and  preferably  Kold  himself  as 
principal.  Grundtvig  himself  was  undecided.  Though  the  wisdom 
of  the  view  held  by  Grundtvig's  wife  was  afterwards  proven,  Brandt 
gained  his  point  for  the  time  being.  The  school  was  erected  near 
Copenhagen  in  1856  and  given  the  name  "  Grundtvig's  High  School." 
Brandt  was  chosen  principal,  and  Grundtvig  delivered  a  series  of  lec- 
tures. Students  did  not  flock  to  the  school,  however,  as  Brandt  had 
hoped.  During  the  first  term  there  were  20  students,  and  when  in 
the  third  year  the  number  dwindled  down  to  12,  Brandt  resigned. 
The  school  was  subsequently  moved  to  Lyngby,  some  distance  farther 
from  the  city.  Under  the  succeeding  principals  the  institution  was 
transformed  more  and  more  into  a  school  of  the  Kold  type,  and  be- 
came one  of  theleading  people's  high  schools  in  the  country.^ 

People's  high  schools  and  the  rural  population. — The  experience  of 
Grundtvig's  high  school  indicates  the  trend  of  the  development — ^the 
people's  high  schools  came  to  be  attended  almost  exclusively  by  the 

1  Begtrup,  Folkehojskolen  i  Danmark,  p.  6. 
*  Schroder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  Ch.  VL 


94  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

rural  population.  This  was  not  in  accordance  with  Grundtvig's 
ideas.  He  conceived  of  a  school  for  all  classes  of  the  population  with- 
out reference  to  geographical  or  vocational  distribution.  In  attempt- 
ing to  indicate  why  the  development  took  this  direction,  it  is  not 
possible  to  point  to  one  or  two  causes  as  offering  a  complete  explana- 
tion. The  situation  was  complex  and  a  variety  of  influences  was  at 
work,  among  which  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  distinguish  between 
cause  and  effect.  Some  students  consider  the  chief  factor  to  be  the 
religious  movement  which  Grundtvig  inspired.^  This  took  hold 
especially  upon  the  rural  population,  and  since  the  people's  high 
schools  owe  so  much  to  the  influence  of  Grundtvig,  it  is  natural  that 
the  schools  should  be  sought  by  the^  Grundtvigian  sympathizers. 
There  is  undoubtedly  much  truth  in  this  view.  Especially  was  this 
factor  operative  in  the  early  history  of  the  schools,  but  it  is  scarcely 
an  adequate  explanation  in  later  years  when  the  schools  have  lost 
much  of  the  partisan  religious  coloring  they  may  have  had.  The 
schools  may  now  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  national  system  of 
education,  and  not  the  property  of  any  particular  religious  group. 

A  large  cause  for  the  popularity  of  the  people's  high  schools  among 
the  rural  population  is  undoubtedly  the  fact  that  they  began  their 
work  among  this  social  class.  The  school  at  Rodding  was  announced 
as  a  school  for  the  rural  class  especially,  and  it  was  Kold's  con- 
stant thought  to  make  his  school  attractive  to  even  the  poorest  sons 
of  the  soil.  Expenses  were  placed  as  low  as  possible,  and  life  at 
school  was  maintained  very  simply  and  plainly,  so  that  the  farmers' 
boys  might  feel  at  home.  The  schools  were  in  fact  called  "  peasant 
schools,"  which  name  alone,  with  all  that  it  implied,  kept  away  many 
young  people  of  cities  and  towns  and  even  children  of  the  well-to-do 
farmers.  The  schools  became  in  consequence  the  special  institution  of 
the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  the  rural  population.  The  capacity 
and  appreciation  of  these  classes  for  culture  was  at  the  same  time  a 
cause  and  effect  of  the  popularity  of  the  schools  among  them.  It 
was  a  case  of  "  appetite  growing  with  what  it  feeds  on." 

Again,  political  developments  contributed  to  make  the  people's 
high  schools  sought  by  the  plain  rural  people.  After  1870  the  exi- 
gencies of  politics  brought  the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  the 
rural  population,  representing  democratic  ideas,  into  sharp  opposi- 
tion to  the  large  landowners  and  the  professional  class,  who  occupied 
a  conservative  position.  The  plain  country  people  found  the  people's 
high  schools  an  excellent  instrumentality  for  equipping  them  for  this 
political  contest.  In  fact,  the  schools  were  accused  by  the  conserva- 
tive party  of  lending  themselves  to  partisan  agitation.  This  was  de- 
nied, and  with  truth,  it  is  contended.  Nevertheless,  the  people's  high 
schools  were  largely  sought  by  the  democratic  element,  and  likewise 

*  Cf.  Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  68,  ff. 


GKOWTH    OF    THE   PEOPLE 's   HIGH    SCHOOL.  95 

shunned  by  the  conservatives,  who  built  agricultural  schools  to  com- 
pete with  them.  The  democratic  party  won  out  in  1901,  and  the 
King  appointed  a  "peasant  ministry.''  The  peasantry  are  still  in 
power  and  vote  a' generous  amount  of  State  aid  to  the  people's  high 
schools. 

An  attempt  at  an  explanation  of  the  preponderance  of  rural  stu- 
dents in  the  people's  high  schools  must  not  fail  to  take  account  of 
the  time  element.  In  the  case  of  young  men,  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  be  released  from  the  farm  during  the  winter  months.  The 
young  man  in  the  city,  on  the  other  hand,  has  no  such  season  of  com- 
parative leisure,  and  finds  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  obtain  leave  of 
absence  from  his  work  for  so  long  a  period  as  a  people's  high-school 
course  requires.  In  the  case  of  girls  the  situation  is  perhaps  not  far 
different.  When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  people's  high  school 
does  not  contemplate  a  change  in  the  student's  vocation,  but  a  return 
to  work  where  he  left  off,  the  lack  of  time  under  the  pressing  con- 
ditions of  modern  city  employment  perhaps  offers  the  largest  single 
reason  for  the  absence  of  city  youth  in  the  people's  high  schools. 

People's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools. — Since  the  people's 
high  schools  became  institutions  for  the  rural  population  in  such  a 
marked  degree,  the  question  is  pertinent :  "  Why  did  they  retain 
this  form  rather  than  become  out-and-out  agricultural  schools?" 
In  a  sense  this  entire  study  is  an  attempt  to  answ^er  that  question, 
and  its  various  phases  are  touched  upon  from  time  to  time.  Mani- 
festly, therefore,  a  full  answer  can  not  be  attempted  here.  It  may 
be  serviceable,  however,  to  point  out  at  this  stage  the  lines  of  thought 
that  have  been  operative  historically.  Three  ideas  have  been  cham- 
pioned with  more  or  less  vigor:  First,  that  the  schools  should  all 
be  agricultural  schools;  second,  that  they  should  be  a  mixture  of 
people's  high  and  agricultural  schools ;  and,  finally,  that  there  should 
be  both  kinds  of  schools,  each  kind  doing  its  distinctive  work. 

The  advocates  of  agricultural  schools  exclusively  held,  as  noted 
in  the  history  of  the  Rodding  high  school,  that  the  best  school  for 
farmers  is  a  school  of  agriculture.  They  contended  that  it  was  an 
ill  use  of  time  and  effort  for  farmers'  sons  to  spend  a  winter  pursu- 
ing studies  that  would  not  directly  help  them  in  the  culture  of 
their  farms.  Others  for  various  reasons  held  that  the  peasantry 
were  incapable  of  general  culture  and  that  it  was  foolishness  to  at- 
tempt it  with  them.  Others,  again,  were  opposed  to  the  people's 
high  schools  for  political  reasons,  as  noted,  and  championed  agri- 
cultural schools  as  the  proper  and  useful  kind  of  schools  for  the 
tillers  of  the  soil.  Prompted  by  one  reason  or  another  men  erected 
agricultural  schools  independent  of  people's  high  schools,  and  in 
several  cases  in  opposition  to  them,  with  a  view  to  final  suppression 
3334°— 15 1 


96  THE   DANISH   PEOPLE 's   HIGH    SCHOOL. 

of  the  high  schools.  The  schools  founded  on  such  ideas  and  oper- 
ated in  opposition  to  the  high  schools  were,  however,  generally  short 
lived.  They  were  not  popular,  did  not  draw  students,  and  were 
financially  unable  to  continue  their  activities. 

The  mixed  school  has  been  tried  sometimes  with  fair  success,  but 
more  generally  accompanied  by  failure.  The  plan  was  tried  at  Rod- 
ding,  but  was  abandoned  when  it  was  found  impossible  to  reconcile 
the  conflicting  elements  in  the  faculty.  Other  schools,  pressed  by 
competition,  have  offered  agricultural  work  in  order  to  draw  stu- 
dents, and  some  agricultural  schools  have  for  like  and  other  reasons 
offered  high-school  subjects.  The  leading  high-school  men  have  been 
opposed  to  the  mixed  school.  They  contend  that  the  vocational  de- 
partment affects  disastrously  the  cultural  work  of  the  school,  while 
at  the  same  time  no  satisfactory  work  can  be  done  in  the  agricultural 
subjects.  The  time  is  too  limited  to  attempt  a  double  program,  the 
result  being  a  school  that  is  "neither  fowl  nor  fish."  The  develop- 
ment has  been  strongly  in  the  direction  of  pure  people's  high  schools 
and  pure  agricultural  schools.  Advocates  of  pure  high  schools  are 
opposed  to  agricultural  schools  in  place  of  people's  high  schools,  but 
nre  not  opposed  to  them  in  addition  to  people's  high  schools.  On 
the  contrary,  the  fruitful  development  of  agricultural  schools  has 
been  in  the  hands  of  people's  high-school  men.  While  agricultural 
schools  founded  independently  of  the  high-school  movement  or  in 
opposition  to  it  have  proved  failures,  agricultural  schools  born  of 
the  high-school  movement  and  operated  in  its  spirit  have  proved 
successful  and  fruitful.  Thus  it  is  said  that  "  the  Danish  agri- 
cultural school  is  a  child  of  the  Danish  people's  high  school  and 
likewise  must  have  a  Christian  foundation  resting  on  the  life  of  the 
people." ' 

The  view  that  has  come  to  prevail  holds  that  the  young  man  should 
first  attend  a  people's  high  school  and  be  awakened,  learn  to  know 
himself  as  a  human  being  with  a  destiny,  as  a  citizen  of  the  State, 
and  a  member  of  a  social  group,  and  thus  have  his  personality  devel- 
oped. Then  he  may  with  much  more  profit  take  a  course  at  an  agri- 
cultural school.  This  view  was  clearly  stated  by  Principal  Svendsen, 
of  Tune  agricultural  school,  in  his  annual  report  in  1890 :  ^ 

To  what  extent  intellectual  maturity  affects  the  results  of  agricultural  In- 
struction we  have  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  by  comparing  those  of  our  stu- 
dents who  have  previously  attended  ci  people's  high  school  with  those  who  have 
had  only  an  elementary  education.  The  difference  is  perhaps  less  striking  if 
the  comparison  is  made  with  students  who  at  a  continuation  or  evening  school 
have  acquired  such  knowledge  of  school  subjects  as  to  place  them  in  this 
respect  on  a  level  with  students  who  have  participated  in  people's  high-school 
instruction.  But  even  if  they  are  apparently  equally  well  prepared  for  partici- 
pation in  agricultural  instruction  there  is  very  often  this  defect  in  their  prepa- 

'  SchrSder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  153. 

2  Quoted  by  Schroder,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  292. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


97 


ration:  That  tlieir  personality  has  been  developed  but  little;  wherefore  such 
students,  in  spite  of  their  intellectual  ability,  so  frequently  show  a  lack  of 
power  to  comprehend  and  assimilate  what  they  have  learned.  Even  if  the 
comparison  is  applied  to  such  students  as  have  acquired  the  knowledge  requi- 
site for  the  preliminary  examination,  by  going  through  a  Real  school,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  advantage  is  without  doubt  on  the  side  of  the  people's 
high-school  students.  In  the  case  of  reasonably  gifted  students  the  instruction 
has  an  awakening  and  enlivening  effect  which  develops  intellectual  receptive- 
ness  in  a  high  degree  and  therefore  makes  the  young  people  excellently  fitted  to 
acquire  knowledge. 

Instead  of  the  feeling  of  completion  which  the  preparation  for 
and  passing  of  an  examijiation  is  apt  to  give — 

the  student  who  comes  from  the  people's  high  school  brings  with  him  a  firm  and 
vivid  impression  that  he  has  just  entered  upon  his  development  and  the  goal 
is  far  ahead.  When  he  enters  the  agricultural  school  in  this  frame  of  mind 
it  is  easy  to  understand  that  he  preeminently  possesses  the  qualifications  for 
getting  the  most  out  of  the  institution.  It  would  therefore  be  very  desirable  if 
all  young  persons  who  wish  to  attend  an  agricultural  school  would  previously 
attend  a  people's  high  school  for  at  least  one  term. 

Statistical  growth. — Affected  by  these  varying  ideas,  the  people's 
high  schools  and  agricultural  schools  have  grown  up  together,  some- 
times in  opposition,  sometimes  in  harmony.  While  the  Danish  na- 
tion was  stirred  by  the  war  of  1818-1850,  and  several  people's  high 
schools  were  founded  in  consequence,  it  was  the  disastrous  war  of 
1864  which  thoroughly  awakened  Denmark  to  an  appreciation  of  her 
national  needs.  With  determination  and  zeal  she  set  to  work  to  make 
the  most  of  what  still  remained  to  her.  With  the  motto  "Outward 
loss,  inward  gain,"  to  inspire  them,  the  Danish  people  proceeded  to 
"re-win  Schleswig-Holstein  on  the  Danish  heath."  From  now  on 
began  an  era  of  intensive  development.  As  an  agency  in  this  domes- 
tic conquest,  people's  high  schools  were  erected  in  large  numbers. 
Statistically  the  development  is  represented  by  Table  9,  which  shows 
the  growth  in  the  number  of  schools.^ 

Table  Q.— Number  of  schools,  18U-1911, 


Years. 


People's  high  schools. 


Erected. 


Discon- 
tinued. 


Agricultural  schools. 


Number 
at  end  of    Erected, 
period. 


Discon- 
tinued. 


Number 
at  end  of 
period. 


1S44-18.51. 
1851-1861. 
1861-1871. 
1871-1881. 
1881-1891. 
1891-1901. 
1901-1905- 
1906-1911. 


Total. 


143 


63 


80 


35 


16 


19 


Dan.  Stat.  Folkehojskoler  og  Landbrugsskoler,  1906-1911,  p.  6  ff. 


98 


THE  DANISH   PEOPLE  S   HIGH   SCHOOL. 


As  appears  from  the  table,  the  greatest  activity  in  the  erection  of 
people's  high  schools  was  manifested  in  the  sixties  and  seventies,  the 
number  increasing  from  11  to  64  in  20  years.  There  has  since  been  a 
steady  gain  in  the  number  of  schools  up  to  the  present  time.  The 
gain  in  agricultural  schools  has  been  largest  in  recent  years. 

In  the  enthusiasm  of  this  rural  educational  movement  many  schools 
have  been  erected  without  a  sufficiently  solid  basis  and  have  had  to 
discontinue  their  activities.  This  has  been  the  fate  of  63  people's 
high  schools  and  16  agricultural  schools.  Most  of  these  were  in  activ- 
ity  for   only   a  brief   period,   as   shown  by   the   following  table  :^ 

Table  10. — Careers  of  discontinued  schools. 


Years  of  existence. 

1-5 

&-10 

n-15 

16-20 

21-25 

26-30 

41-45 

56-60 

Total. 

People's  high  schools 

Agricultural  schools  

25 
6 

9 
4 

9 
3 

10 
0 

5 
0 

4 

2 

1 
0 

0 
1 

63 
16 

A  rather  more  interesting  study  is  that  of  attendance.^  A  re- 
markable growth  took  place  in  the  decade  after  the  war,  1865-1875, 
when  the  attendance  increased  about  eightfold.  Since  then  the  in- 
crease has  been  slower  but  steady,  so  that  the  number  in  the  early 
seventies,  some  three  thousand,  has  been  more  than  doubled  at  the 
present  time.  The  development  of  agricultural  education  is  best 
shown  by  the  number  of  agricultural  students  in  percentage  of  the 
total  attendance  at  both  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural 
schools.  In  the  early  years  before  the  people's  high  schools  won 
favor  with  the  people,  the  number  of  students  in  agricultural  schools, 
though  small,  absolutely  considered,  was  relatively  very  large,  con- 
stituting for  a  time  about  50  per  cent.  The  percentage  then  de- 
creased until  it  reached  the  low  figure  of  10  in  the  late  sixties  and  5 
in  the  early  seventies.  While  a  gradual  tendency  upward  is  notice- 
able after  that  time,  the  largest  increase  has  occurred  in  the  last 
decade.  The  number  of  students  in  agricultural  schools  in  the  single 
year  1910-11  constituted  19  per  cent.  This  increase  is  said  to  be 
due  to  the  growing  appreciation  of  scientific  methods  in  agriculture. 
The  increase  in  girls'  attendance  has  been  steady  up  through  the 
years,  both  absolutely  and  relatively,  their  number  having  reached 
at  the  present  time  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  students 
in  people's  high  schools.  The  number  of  girls  in  agricultural  schools 
is  relatively  small,  a  large  number  of  those  attending  taking  courses 

1  Dan.  Stat,  op.  cit.,  p.  7. 

*  See  table  in  appendix,  p.  167. 


THE   SCHOOLS  AND    THEIR   LIFE. 


99 


in  horticulture  and  dairying,  rather  than  in   agriculture,  strictly 
speaking. 

Thus  in  brief  is  the  story  of  the  people's  high-school  movement  in 
Denmark.  Beginning  with  1  school  and  20  students  in  1844,  it  has 
moved  on  and  expanded  until  it  has  gathered  over  8,000  young 
people  in  99  schools,  working  together  as  powerful  agencies  for  the 
cultural  and  vocational  education  of  rural  Denmark. 


Chapter  VIII, 


THE  SCHOOLS  AND  THEIR  LIFE. 

Size  of  schools. — On  account  of  the  historic  origin,  similarity  in 
methods,  and  close  interaction  it  is  advantageous  to  deal  with  the 
people's  high  schools  and  the  agricultural  schools  together.  This  is 
the  more  in  order  as  all  the  schools  are  under  one  State  inspection 
and  statistically  are  treated  together.  The  size  of  the  schools  is 
determined  by  the  number  of  year  students  in  each,  i.  e.,  the  total 
number  of.  students  in  attendance  during  any  one  year  times  the 
months  of  attendance  divided  by  12.^  The  average  number  of  year 
students  in  people's  high  schools  in  1910-11  w^as  29 ;  m  agricultural 
schools,  36.  Five  years  previously  the  corresponding  numbers  were 
32  and  37.  The  number  of  schools  has  increased  more  rapidly  than 
the  number  of  students,  wherefore  the  average  attendance  has  de- 
creased somewhat.^ 

The  range  of  attendance  is  very  great,  the  extreme  limits  in  the 
case  of  people's  high  schools  being  3  and  150  year  students.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  schools  on  the  scale  of  attendance  appears  from  the  fol- 
lowing table :  ^ 

Table  11. — Distribution  of  schools  on  basis  of  number  of  year  students,  1910-11. 


1  to  10  year  st u dents . 

10  to  20 

20  to  30 

30  to  40 

40  to  60 

60  to  80 


People's 
high  schools. 

25 

26 

10 

6 

5 

2 


80  to  100  year  students. 

100  to  120 

120  to  140 

140  to  160 - 


People's 
high  schools. 

3 

1 

3 

1 


Total 


80 


It  will  be  seen  that  much  more  than  one-half  of  the  people's  high 
schools  had  fewer  than  20  year  students,  and  in  five  years  these  small 

iThus  48  boys  for  5  months  and  40  girls  for  3  months,  divided  by  12  (240  + 120 -i- 12), 
gives  30  as  the  number  of  year  students. 

«  Dan.  Stat  Folkehojskoler  eg  Landbrugsskoler,  1906-1911,  p.  7. 


100 

schools  have  grown  in  number  from  38  to  49.  The  median  school  has 
15  year  students.^  This,  then,  is  the  size  of  the  type  school,  in  the 
sense  of  the  one  most  frequently  met  with.  As  the  usual  school  terms 
are  five  months  in  winter  and  three  months  in  summer,  with  a  differ- 
ent group  of  students  each  term,  the  type  school  has  22J  boys  in 
winter  and  the  same  number  of  girls  in  summer.  A  total  of  45 
young  people  is  thus  reached  by  the  type  school  each  year. 

On  the  basis  of  total  distribution  of  year  students,  hoAvever,  the 
median  school  is  found  manifestly  higher  up,  for  the  small  schools, 
though  numerous,  have  only  a  small  total  attendance.  Thus  the  49 
smallest  schools  had  in  1910-11  a  total  attendance  of  552,  or  not  quite 
one-fourth,  while  the  five  largest  schools  had  a  total  of  626  year 
students,  or  a  little  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  total  number  in  all  the 
schools.  On  the  basis  of  total  distribution  of  year  students,  the 
median  school  is  found  to  have  41  year  students,  or  61^  students  in 
each  of  the  two  terms,  giving  a  total  of  123  different  students  reached 
during  the  year.  This  is  the  type  school  in  the  sense  of  being  the  one 
most  generally  frequented  by  students.  Measured  by  whatever 
standard,  it  is  therefore  far  from  the  mark  to  say,  as  frequently  has 
been  done,  that  the  typical  people's  high  school  has  about  150  stu- 
dents in  attendance  at  one  time. 

The  agricultural  schools  range  in  size  from  7  to  111  year  students. 
On  the  basis  of  frequency  the  median  agricultural  school  has  27  year 
students,  while  on  the  basis  of  total  attendance  the  median  school  has 
61  year  students. 

In  1910-11,  of  the  80  people's  high  schools,  64  had  both  boys  and 
girls  in  attendance;  7  were  for  girls  only,  while  8  had  boys  only, 
although  7  of  these  had  formerly  had  some  girls. 

Location  and  equipment. — Almost  without  exception,  the  schools 
are  located  in  the  open  country,  a  mile  or  two  from  village  or  city. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  chiefly  the  desire  to  place  the  students  in  a 
rural  environment,  so  as  not  to  train  them  away  from  rural  life,  and 
the  conviction  that  such  a  location  offers  fewer  temptations  and  dis- 
turbs least  the  quiet  needed  for  thought  and  study. 

Most  of  the  schools  are  boarding  schools,  where  the  students  live  a 
community  life  with  the  teachers.  In  many  cases  the  plant  consists 
of  one  large  building.  The  first  floor  is  devoted  to  offices  for  the 
principal  and  home  for  his  family,  a  common  dining  room,  with  the 
necessary  culinary  department  attached,  a  common  sitting  room,  one 
large  lecture  hall  sufficient  to  accommodate  all  the  students  at  one 

1  The  median  school  is  the  middle  school,  arrived  at  by  counting  in  equal  numbers  from 
either  extreme.  The  statistical  data  on  which  the  above  and  following  computations  iire 
based  are  too  extensive  to  warrant  publication  here.  The  data  may  be  found  in  Dan. 
Stat.,  op.  cit..  p.  50CE!. 


THE   SCHOOLS   AND   THEIR    LI:FE.  101 

time,  several  smaller  classrooms,  library,  ro*)ms  containing  physical 
and  chemical  apparatus  and  natural  science  collections,  and  a  gymna- 
sium. On  the  upper  floors  are  the  dormitories,  equipped  for  two  or 
four  persons  in  a  room.  In  the  case  of  schools  which  have  more  than 
one  building,  there  may  be  a  separate  gymnasium,  dormitories,  and 
the  like.  Many  of  the  schools  have  considerable  land,  with  farm 
buildings  in  connection,  where  articles  of  food  for  the  boarding  estab- 
lishment are  produced. 

The  agricultural  schools  have  in  the  main  the  same  features  as  the 
people's  high  schools,  but  have  more  elaborate  scientific  equipment 
and  laboratories  where  students  do  individual  work.  They  also  have 
land  in  connection  for  experimentation  in  agriculture  and  horticul- 
ture. Most  of  these  schools  also  have  museums  attached,  which  show 
the  progress  made  in  agriculture  by  labor-savin'g  machinery,  and 
designs  showing  the  advance  toward  perfection  in  agricultural  imple- 
ments. Testing  stations  are  also  generally  maintained  for  demon- 
strating the  value  of  seeds  and  fertilizers. 

The  furnishings  of  all  the  schools  are  simple — at  times  meager. 
The  food,  too,  though  substantial  and  sufficient,  is  very  plain.  Most 
of  the  students  come  from  modest  rural  homes,  where  they  are  not 
accustomed  to  many  luxuries.  The  aim  of  the  schools  is  to  have  the 
young  people  return  to  their  homes  with  a  spiritualized  view  of  life, 
to  be  sure,  but  not  educated  away  from  their  work  and  station. 
Therefore,  to  surround  them  at  the  schools  with  luxuries  would  be 
bad  psychology.  "  Plain  living  and  high  thinking  "  is  the  people's 
high-school  principle. 

Community  life  in  the  schools. — It  has  been  an  almost  universal 
custom  in  the  schools  since  Kold's  time  for  the  principal  and  his 
family  to  take  at  least  the  principal  meal  of  the  day  with  the  stu- 
dents in  the  common  dining  room.  This  gives  the  school  more  the 
color  of  a  large  family  than  a  mere  boarding  school.  Frequently, 
too,  other  teachers  are  seated  at  different  tables  throughout  the  room, 
and  their  influence  for  culture  is  thus  extended.  A  like  influence  is 
exerted  by  unmarried  teachers  who  live  in  the  school  dormitories, 
and  thus  come  into  very  close  personal  touch  with  the  students. 

Discipline,  in  the  sense  of  enforced  order,  is  practically  unknown 
in  the  people's  high  schools.  The  young  men  and  women  who  attend 
are  grown-up  people  with  a  desire  for  self -improvement,  and  with 
the  full  daily  program  provided  for  them  there  is  no  trouble  about 
order.  To  be  sure,  in  a  body  of  a  hundred  or  more  young  men  who 
have  not  had  the  benefit  of  many  refining  influences  there  w^ill  be 
found  habits  and  propensities  which  need  to  be  discouraged.  For 
this  purpose,  and  in  order  to  check  any  irregularities,  the  school 
principals  exercise  fatherly  and  wise  supervision  and  lend  their 


102  THE   DANISH    PEOPLE  ^S   HIGH    SCHOOL. 

influence  to  the  building  up  of  a  healthy  moral  atmosphere.  In  some 
schools  a  form  of  student  government  is  in  vogue,  whereby  the  stu- 
dents adopt  certain  regulations  touching  good  order,  which  they 
mutually  bind  themselves  to  observe.  Some  principals  hold,  how- 
ever, that  the  terms  are  too  short  to  develop  an  esprit  de  corps  suffi- 
ciently strong  for  effective  self-government. 

While  the  schools  are  pervaded  with  a  deep-seated  religious  spirit, 
no  compulsion  rests  upon  students  in  religious  matters.  The  prin- 
cipal usually  conducts  devotional  exercises  in  the  morning.  These 
the  students  are  free  to  attend,  and  their  participation  is  very  gen- 
eral. Grace  is  said  at  meals,  and  some  schools  have  voluntary  even- 
ing devotions.  Attendance  upon  church  services  is  also  voluntary. 
There  is  no  formal  instruction  in  religion,  but  in  the  treatment  of 
history,  biographj^,  and  literature  the  religious  factor  is  emphasized. 
Thus  while  the  teachers  bring  no  compulsion  to  bear  upon  students 
in  matters  of  religion,  they  do  consciously  and  sincerely  make  use  of 
the  religious  element  for  the  development  of  personality. 

The  life  in  the  schools  is  very  attractive  to  the  rural  young  people. 
"They  take  to  it  as  ducks  do  to  water."  Many  look  forward  for 
years  to  the  time  when  they  can  afford  to  attend  a  people's  high 
school.  They  go  of  their  own  free  will  and  at  their  own  expense. 
They  are  drawn  by  high  anticipations  of  the  wonderful  things  they 
are  to  experience  there  and  by  a  keen  desire  for  self -improvement. 
Coming  into  a  group  w^ith  the  same  interests  and  aspirations  as  them- 
selves, their  joyous  community  life  begins  at  once,  and  the  days  of 
their  sojourn  pass  all  too  quickly. 

Daily  program. — The  daily  program  of  necessity  differs  much  in 
the  various  schools,  for  the  institutions  strongly  reflect  the  per- 
sonality of  their  principals.  A  fair  idea  of  a  day's  work  and  life 
may,  however,  be  obtained  from  the  program  at  Roskilde,  one  of  the 
larger  schools,  during  the  winter  of  1911-12: 

Daily  Program  at  Roskilde,  1911-12. 

A.M. 

7.00.     Rising  bell. 
7.30.     Morning  meal. 

7.50.     Devotion.     A   hymn  is  sung,  principal  reads  a   selection  from 
devotional  literature;  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  said:  and  another 
hymn  is  sung. 
8.00  to   9.00.     Natural  sciences.     Elements  of  physics,  astronomy,  botany,  and 

zoology. 
9.00  to  11.00.     Danish  and  gymnastics,  alternately  by  sections, 
11.00  to  12.00.     Monday,    Tuesday,    and   Wednesday — discussion    of   social    and 
church     problems.     Questions     from     students     encouraged. 
Thursday,    Friday,    and    Saturday — lectures    on    history    of 
Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century. 


THE   SCHOOLS  AND   THEIR   LIFE. 


103 


P.M. 
12.10  to  12.30. 
12.30  to    2.15. 

2.15  to  3.15. 
3.00  to  3.30. 
3.30  to    5.30. 

5.45  to    6.45. 


6.45  to  7.15. 
7.15  to  8.00. 
8.00  to    9.00. 


10.30. 


Dinner. 

Free  hours.  Students  take  walks,  write  letters,  read,  or 
study. 

Civics  and  economics.    Largely  discussions. 

Afternoon  coffee  in  common  dining  room. 

Arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  drawing,  and  essay  writing.  In  sec- 
tions, 

Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday — lectures  on  general  his- 
tory. Thursday,  Friday,  and  Saturday — lectures  on  history 
of  Denmark  since  1800. 

Evening  meal. 

Free  hours. 

In  first  weeks  of  term,  reading  of  literary  selections.  Later 
individual  work  by  students. 

Retiring  hour. 


Where  students  come  from. — As  before  noted,  the  students  in  the 
people's  high  school  come  almost  exclusively  from  the  rural  districts. 
In  1910-11  only  5  per  cent  of  the  students  came  from  cities,  while  of 
the  total  population  in  Denmark  40  per  cent  live  in  cities.  The  pro- 
portion of  students  from  the  cities  and  from  the  country  has  re- 
mained practically  constant  in  recent  years.  A  somewhat  larger 
number  of  the  girls  than  the  boys  came  from  the  cities,  the  percent- 
ages being  7  and  4,  respectively.  In  1910-11  437  students  came  from 
countries  outside  of  Denmark  proper,  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
these  being  from  south  Jutland,  the  territory  lost  to  Germany  in 
1864.1 

Table  12. — Students  from  Denmark  proper  in  relation  to  one  generation  of  the 
rural  population,  1910-11. 


Students. 

People's 

high 
schools. 

Agricul- 
tural 
schools. 

Total. 

Tne  gen- 
eration 
of  rural 
young 
people. 

Percentage     of     students   in 
one    generation    of    young 
people. 

People's 

high 
schools. 

Agricul- 
tural 
schools. 

All 
schools. 

Boys       

3,419 
2,941 

1,275 
185 

4,694 
3,126 

13,041 
12,530 

26 
23 

10 

1 

Girls                  

Total    

6,360 

1,460 

7,820 

25,571 

31 

Table  12  shows  the  number  of  students  from  Denmark  proper  in 
relation  to  one  generation  of  the  rural  population.^  All  the  people 
in  the  country,  outside  of  Copenhagen  and  74  provincial  cities,  are 
classified  as  rural.  The  class  embraces,  therefore,  many  villages  of 
considerable  size.    The  unusual  meaning  of  one  generation  in  these 


1  Dan.  Stat.,  Folkehojskoler  og  Landbrugsskoler,  1906-1911,  p.  19. 
>  laem,  p.  20. 


104  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

statistics  should  be  noted,  namely,  the  group  of  people  who  are  born 
in  a  given  year.  For  people's  high-school  purposes  one  generation  is 
computed  to  be  the  total  rural  population  between  ages  20  and  25, 
divided  by  5.  This  age  group  is  selected  because  the  greatest  number 
of  students  are  of  this  age.  The  percentages  in  the  table  are  subject 
to  two  main  corrections.  In  the  first  place,  the  students  from  the 
cities  have  been  included,  as  it  was  not  practicable  to  separate  them. 
This  number  constitutes  about  5  per  cent,  as  before  noted.  Secondly, 
to  determine  how  many  of  one  generation  attend  the  schools  it  is 
necessary  to  deduct  the  number  of  those  who  have  previously  at- 
tended one  of  the  schools.  This  element  constitutes  about  16  per  cent 
of  the  student  population.  A  total  reduction  of  21  per  cent  of  the 
percentages  is  thus  necessary.  Furthermore,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  these  computations  are  for  only  one  year,  1910-11.  The 
percentages  in  recent  years  have,  hoAvever,  been  fairly  constant.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  attendance  at  people's  high  and  agricultural 
schools  comprises  31  per  cent;  with  the  corrections  applied,  the  result 
is  about  24  per  cent.  Thus  about  one-fourth  of  the  entire  rural  popu- 
lation of  Denmark  attend  either  a  people's  high  school  or  an  agricul- 
tural school  or  both. 

The  percentage  of  boys'  attendance  is  perhaps  particularly  inter- 
esting and  significant,  26  per  cent  in  people's  high  schools  and  10  per 
cent  in  agricultural  schools.  These  give  a  total  of  36  per  cent;  cor- 
rected, about  28  per  cent.  In  Jutland  alone  the  corrected  percentage 
of  boys  is  33,  and  in  one  county,  Aarhus,  the  corrected  percentage  of 
boys'  attendance  rises  to  40. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  location  of  students'  homes  with  refer- 
ence to  the  schools  they  attend;  29  per  cent  attend  schools  in  the 
county  in  which  they  live;  a  little  less  than  20  per  cent  attend  in  a 
neighboring  county;  while  a  similar  number  attend  schools  in 
another  county  in  the  same  section  of  the  country.  Finally,  31  per 
cent  go  to  another  section  of  the  country  to  attend  school.^  This  indi- 
cates that  those  young  people  who  do  leave  home  go  to  a  considerable 
distance  rather  than  into  the  next  county.  Among  the  reasons  for 
this  tendency,  which  has  been  growing,  may  be  mentioned  increasing 
wealth  and  low  railway  fares.  The  practice  is  encouraged,  as  it  is 
felt  that  a  visit  to  another  section  of  the  country  is  in  itself  a  part 
of  their  education.  The  girls  go  a  little  farther  away  from  home 
than  the  boys,  and  the  boys  in  agricultural  schools  a  little  farther 
than  those  in  people's  high  schools. 

Social  station  of  students. — The  station  in  life  from  which  stu- 
dents come  is  of  interest.^    More  than  one-half  of  the  students  are 

1  Dan.  Stat,  op.  clt,  p.  24. 
*  See  table  in  appendix,  p.  292. 


THE   SCHOOLS  AND  THEIR  LIFE. 


105 


children  of  the  larger  farmers,  operating  20  or  more  acres  of  land. 
The  relative  percentages  through  a  series  of  years,  1890-91,  1900- 
1901,  1905-6,  1910-11,  are,  respectively,  58,  53,  52,  and  54.  Thus  this 
element,  which  for  a  time  was  decreasing,  is  now  increasing  again. 
The  children  of  smaller  farmers  constitute  the  next  largest  group, 
20  per  cent.  Their  number  has  been  slightly  decreasing  in  recent 
years,  the  percentages  for  the  four  years  mentioned  above  being,  re- 
spectively, 21,  24,  22,  20.  People's  high-school  friends  are  alarmed 
at  this  tendency,  which  is  increasing  the  percentage  of  the  well-to-do 
students  at  the  expense  of  the  poorer.  In  the  spirit  of  the  people's 
high-school  movement  they  contend  that  the  permanent  stability  and 
welfare  of  the  civic  and  social  structure  demand  a  people's  culture 
that  shall  embrace  all  classes  of  the  population  from  the  bottom  up. 
They  therefore  regard  as  baneful  any  movement  which  tends  to  re- 
move cultural  opportunities  from  the  lower  social  group. 

Another  tendency  which  is  also  regretted  is  that  which  is  giving 
the  schools  a  distinctive  social  coloring,  so  that  they  are  coming  to 
be  regarded  as  schools  for  the  well-to-do  or  the  reverse.  The  fol- 
lowing table  is  based  on  the  reports  of  those  people's  high  schools 
only  which  had  no  vocational  departments  whatsoever.^  This  group 
seems  most  significant  for  the  present  consideration. 

Table  13. — Character  of  people's  high  schools  as  determined  hy  social  station  of 

students'  parents. 


Percentage    of    large 
farmers. 

Number  of  schools. 

1905-6 

1908-9 

1910-11 

10  to  20 

1 
2 
8 
14 
8 
7 
2 
1 

1 
3 
7 

10 
7 

14 
3 
1 
1 

20  to  30 

i 

3 
10 
10 
9 
4 

30  to  40 

40  to  50 

60to60    

60  to  70 

70  to  80 

80  to  90 

90  to  100 

Total  schools 

37 

43 

47 

The  distribution  of  the  schools  shows  an  increase  in  the  variation 
from  the  mode  with  a  seeming  trend  toward  the  formation  of  two 
modes,  one  with  a  higher  and  one  with  a  lower  percentage  of  children 
of  large  farmers.  This  would  mean  children  of  the  well-to-do  going 
to  one  type  of  school  and  poorer  children  to  another  type.  This  is 
a  truly  regrettable  tendency,  as  the  very  foundation  of  the  people's 
high-school  movement  is  laid  in  democracy,  and  a  cleavage  along  the 
line  of  wealth  can  not  but  hamper  the  service  of  the  schools. 

^Dau.  Stat.,  op.  cit.,  p.  18. 


106  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

In  addition  to  the  large  and  small  farmers,  in  1910-11  laborers 
furnished  3  per  cent  of  the  student  population  and  artisans  10  per 
cent.  The  miscellaneous  group  is  made  up  of  teachers,  civil  servants, 
and  the  like,  furnishing  4  per  cent ;  merchants,  3  per  cent ;  and  other 
vocations,  6  per  cent. 

Information  as  to  the  occupations  of  the  students  themselves  is 
available  in  the  case  of  those  who  hold  scholarships.^  By  far  the 
largest  number  of  the  students  hold  the  position  of  employees  of  one 
kind  or  another,  67  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  82  per  cent  of  the  girls. 
Of  the  boys,  the  artisan  group  is  also  of  considerable  size,  23  per 
cent.  Among  the  other  occupations,  dairy  workers  and  seamstresses 
are  most  largely  represented.  Very  few  are  reported  as  living  at 
home.  These  ambitious  young  people  have  already  begun  the  serious 
business  of  life,  but  feeling  their  lack  of  adequate  equipment  they  go 
to  the  people's  schools  to  prepare  for  larger  living  and  more  efficient 
service. 

Age  of  students. — The  question  of  the  students'  occupations  is  of 
course  closely  related  to  their  ages.  The  general  statement  has  pre- 
viously been  made  that  the  students  are  adults.  By  far  the  largest 
age  group  is  18  to  25  years.^  Its  lead  has  been  increased  in  recent 
years,  the  percentages  for  1890-91,  1900-1901,  1905-6,  and  1910-11 
being,  respectively,  68,  75,  78,  and  79.  The  decrease  has  taken  place 
especially  in  the  group  below  18  years.  In  general  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  girls  are  slightly  younger  than  the  boys,  and  that  students 
in  agricultural  schools  are  older  than  those  in  people's  high  schools. 
The  latter  is,  of  course,  to  be  expected,  since  many  of  the  students 
in  agricultural  schools  have  previously  attended  a  people's  high 
school. 

Students'^  previous  training. — Since  students  are  so  advanced  in 
years,  it  is  pertinent  to  ask  what  previous  school  training  they  have 
had.  The  great  majority  have  had  no  regular  school  work  beyond 
the  elementary  school.^  Sixteen  per  cent  have  previously  attended 
a  people's  high  school.  Most  of  these  are  boys,  and  it  is  especially 
the  boys  in  the  agricultural  schools  that  have  previously  attended  a 
people's  high  school,  their  number  constituting  45  per  cent  of  the 
total.  Further,  167  boys  had  had  Real  school  or  Gymnasium  train- 
ing ;  64  of  these  took  people's  high-school  work,  the  balance  pursuing 
vocational  courses. 

Courses  pursued  hy  students. — As  previously  noted,  the  schools  are 
not  all  pure  people's  high  or  agricultural  schools.  They  overlap 
more  or  less,  and  several  vocational  departments  aside  from  agricul- 

1  See  table  in  appendix,  p.  293. 
'  ■  See  table  in  appendix,  p.  294. 

•Dan.  Stat.,  op.  cit.,  p.  19. 


THE   SCHOOLS  AND  THEIR   LIFE. 


107 


ture  are  maintained.     The  departments  maintained  in  1910-11,  to- 
gether with  the  attendance,  appear  from  table  14 :  ^ 

Table  14. — Attendance  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools,  by 

departments. 


Departments. 

People's  high 
schools. 

Agricultural 
schools. 

Total. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

People's  high  school 

2,851 
101 
534 
55 
62 

3,047 
9 

2i' 

27 

5,898 

1,439 

547 

1,146 
13 

183 

Gymnastics                       

76 

89 

Horticuliure 

57 
138 

7 

6 

63 

Dairying  .     .          

138 

Live  stocif  and  feeding  experts 

7 

Total 

3,603 

3,104 

1,361 

189 

8,257 

In  the  high  schools  the  vast  majority  of  students  are,  of  course, 
pursuing  people's  high-school  courses  proper,  Avith  the  department 
for  artisans  second  in  importance.  In  the  agricultural  schools  dairy- 
ing and  horticulture  chiefly  occupy  the  attention  of  those  who  are  not 
devoting  themselves  to  agriculture  itself.  The  courses  in  gymnastics 
train  teachers  of  gymnastics  for  schools  and  village  gymnasium 
clubs.  The  continuation  courses  supplement  the  work  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools  and  prepare  for  the  people's  high-school  courses. 

Length  of  attendance. — In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  people's 
high-school  courses  for  boys  extend  through  five  months — November 
to  March — and  for  girls  three  months — May  to  July.  Several  of 
the  agricultural  schools  extend  their  work  over  six  months,  to  the 
end  of  April,  while  some  even  have  nine  months'  courses.  Table  15 
gives  the  attendance  by  months  in  1910-11.^ 


Table  15. 


-Attendance   hy  months  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural 
schools,   1910-11. 


Month. 


April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 


People's 

high 
schools. 


328 

2,761 

2, 755 

2,744 

48 

129 


Agricul- 
tural 
schools. 


518 
345 
340 
335 

77 


Month. 


<^ctober... 
November 
December. 
January.. 
February. 
March 


People's 

high 
schools. 


161 
3,643 
3,684 
3,914 
3,893 
3,779 


Agricul- 
tural 
schools. 


104 
1,223 
1,231 
1,263 
1,257 
1,232 


The  uniformity  of  the  attendance  throughout  the  five  winter  and 
the  three  summer  months  indicates  that  the  students  remain  to  the 


»Dan.  Stat,  op.  cit.,  p.  13. 


108  THE   DANISH   PEOPLE 's   HIGH    SCHOOL. 

end  of  the  term.  In  the  case  of  the  boys  in  people's  high  schools, 
however,  it  appears  that  some  200  do  not  enter  until  January,  and 
about  100  drop  out  at  the  end  of  February.  But  this  mortality  must 
be  regarded  as  very  small,  considering  that  there  is  no  compulsion 
resting  upon  the  students  to  remain.  The  persistency  of  their  attend- 
ance is  perhaps  the  most  significant  commentary  on  the  hold  which 
these  schools  have  upon  the  people. 

Students^  expenses. — Undoubtedly  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the 
success  of  the  people's  high  schools  is  the  small  expense  to  the  stu- 
dents. The  costs  are  fixed  by  the  Danish  High- School  Teachers' 
Association  and  are  uniform  throughout  the  schools.  For  room  and 
board  students  pay  22  kroner  per  calendar  month.  For  tuition  the 
rates  are  20  kroner  for  the  first  month,  20  for  the  second,  15  for  the 
third,  10  for  the  fourth,  and  nothing  for  the  fifth  month.  This 
makes  a  total  of  175  kroner.  If  10  kroner  be  added  for  books  and 
school  materials  and  2  kroner  for  medical  attendance,  the  total  ex- 
penses for  a  five  months'  term  amount  to  187  kroner.^  The  expenses 
for  a  three  months'  term  total  108  kroner.  At  the  advanced  high 
school  at  Askov  and  at  agricultural  schools  the  expenses  are  about 
25  per  cent  higher  than  the  above. 

Scholarships. — Even  these  expenses,  though  so  moderate,  would 
operate  as  a  barrier  against  many  young  people  of  small  means  and 
meager  opportunities  for  earning  money.  The  State  has  accord- 
ingly pursued  a  very  generous  policy  in  granting  scholarships  to 
needy  students.  The  amount  of  the  appropriation  for  this  purpose 
has  been  increased  from  time  to  time  until  at  present  250,000  kroner 
is  available  each  year.  In  1910-11  there  were  4,710  applications  for 
scholarships,  of  which  2,658,  or  56  per  cent,  were  granted.^  The 
number  of  students  holding  scholarships  constituted  32  per  cent  of 
the  entire  student  population.  In  the  agricultural  schools,  vv^hich 
more  well-to-do  students  attend,  the  percentage  was  23.  The  amount 
of  a  scholarship  per  student  per  month  was  about  20  kroner  in  the 
high  schools,  and  25  kroner  in  the  agricultural  schools.  These 
amounts  constitute  somewhat  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  ex- 
pense to  the  student.  With  such  low  expenses  and  with  such  gen- 
erous aid  from  the  State,  it  may  safely  be  said  that  no  student  of 
merit  need  be  barred  by  financial  considerations  from  a  course  at  a 
people's  high  school  or  agricultural  school. 

The  teaching  force. — In  1910-11,  589  teachers  gave  instruction  in 
people's  high  schools  and  168  in  agricultural  schools.^  Teachers  in 
both  types  of  schools  may  be  conveniently  grouped  under  four 
heads — principals,  wives  of  principals,  permanently  appointed  teach- 

»At  current  rates  of  exchange,  187  kroner  equal  about  $51. 
8  Dan.  Stat,  op.  cit.,  p.  26ff. 
'Idem,  p.  35. 


THE  SCHOOLS  AND  THEIR  LIFE.  109 

ers,  and  instructors  paid  by  the  hour.  In  the  high  schools,  women 
constituted  about  27  per  cent  of  the  teaching  force,  while  in  agricul- 
tural schools  only  17  per  cent  were  women.  Of  high-school  princi- 
pals only  6  were  women.  The  average  number  of  teachers  was  7^ 
in  high  schools  and  9  in  agricultural  schools.  In  the  case  of  the  high 
schools  this  average  is  not  very  significant,  however,  since  many 
teachers  give  instruction  during  the  winter  only  and  others  only 
during  the  summer.  The  resultant  average  is  therefore  too  high  to 
represent  correctly  the  typical  teaching  force  in  charge  at  any  one 
time.  Correction  for  the  duplication  being  made,  the  average  teach- 
ing force  numbers  about  5^  in  people's  high  schools.^  Many  schools 
have,  however,  only  3  teachers,  some  only  2.  That  a  school  of  con- 
siderable size  can  be  operated  by  so  small  a  number  of  teachers  is 
due  to  the  fact  that-  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  instruction 
the  whole  student  body  constitutes  one  group,  so  that  only  one  teacher 
at  a  time  is  in  charge.  Division  into  sections  with  two  or  more  teach- 
ers in  charge  takes  place  only  in  the  case  of  subjects  involving  drill, 
such  as  Danish,  arithmetic,  and  gymnastics. 

As  to  amount  of  teaching  done,  about  one-third  of  the  teachers 
have  not  more  than  6  hours  of  instruction  per  week  and  only  one- 
fifth  have  more  than  18  hours.^  As  might  be  expected,  instructors 
paid  by  the  hour  teach  the  fewest  number  of  hours.  The  amount  of 
teaching  done  by  principals  is  surprisingly  large.  Women  teach 
fewer  hours  than  men,  and  teachers  in  agricultural  schools  do  less 
quantitative  teaching  than  those  in  the  high  schools.  This  is  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  division  of  students  into  sections,  with  a  conse- 
quently larger  number  of  hours  of  teaching,  is  less  common  in  agricul- 
tural schools  than  in  the  high  schools.  The  agricultural  instruction 
requires,  too,  a  larger  number  of  specialists  whose  work  is  intensive 
rather  than  extensive. 

Many  persons  do  other  work  in  addition  to  teaching  in  the  people's 
high  and  agricultural  schools.  In  some  cases  the  teaching  is  their 
major  interest  and  sometimes  their  minor.  Thus  a  few  hours  a  week 
are  frequently  taught  by  teachers  from  public  or  other  schools,  and 
by  the  local  pastors.  Artisans  give  some  instruction  in  mechanical 
drawing,  and  practical  farmers  supplement  the  work  of  the  regular 
teachers  in  the  agricultural  schools,  as  do  also  Government  inspec- 
tors, live-stock  experts,  and  veterinarians. 

A  particularly  large  place  in  the  life  and  work  of  the  people's  high 
schools  is  filled  by  the  principal's  wife.  In  many  cases  she  does  con- 
siderable teaching,  especially  in  the  field  of  household  arts.  Fre- 
quently, in  the  position  of  matron,  she  superintends  the  purchasing 
of  supplies,  manages  the  culinary  department,  and  in  general  stands 

1  statistical  information  for  determining  the  median  is  not  available. 
8  See  table  in  appendix,  pp.  168,  169. 


110  THE   DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

in  the  relation  of  mother  to  the  students.  Many  a  school  owes  its 
success  and  influence  largely  to  the  noble  woman  who,  as  partner  in 
the  principalship,  has  helped  solve  the  innumerable  problems  that 
arise,  and  has  exerted  that  gentle  influence  which  makes  the  people's 
high  school  such  a  unique  type  of  school  activity. 

Additional  light  is  thrown  upon  the  character  of  the  teachers  by 
information  as  to  their  ages.^  Many  of  them  are  young,  46  per  cent 
of  the  men  in  people's  high  schools  being  below  35  years.  High- 
school  teachers  have  a  greater  age  range  than  those  in  agricultural 
schools,  there  being  more  below  30  and  above  65  years.  Other  things 
being  equal,  this  Avould  indicate  a  superior  class  of  teachers  in  the 
agricultural  schools.  Women  are  considerably  yo'.mger  than  the 
men.  More  than  half  of  them  are  below  30  years.  While  the  propor- 
tion of  young  teachers  is  thus  very  large,  the  number  of  teachers  in 
the  higher  age  groups  affords  ample  proof  that  many  persons,  espe- 
cially men,  choose  and  pursue  teaching  in  these  schools  as  their  life 
work. 

Education  of  teachers. — As  to  professional  equipment,  there  are 
three  chief  groups  of  teachers  in  the  people's  high  schools — the  uni- 
versity trained,  normal  school  graduates,  and  those  trained  in  the 
people's  high  schools  themselves — constituting  15,  22,  and  28  per  cent, 
respectively.  The  balance  are  trained  by  a  variety  of  agencies,  such 
as  Gymnasia  and  other  secondary  schools,  agricultural  college,  teach- 
er's college,  and  special  courses  for  people's  high-school  teachers.* 
In  the  university  group  many  are  graduates  in  theology.  This  kind 
of  training  in  preparation  for  high-school  teaching  has  been  regarded 
with  much  favor.  It  not  only  selects  the  men  who  by  temperament 
are  likely  to  prove  successful  teachers  in  a  school  whose  object  is  pri- 
marily the  awakening  of  the  spirit,  but  it  also  gives  an  insight  into 
the  historic  workings  of  those  large  religious,  cultural,  and  social  fac- 
tors that  are  still  operative  in  building  character.  In  recent  years, 
however,  the  number  of  universit5^-trained  men  has  been  decreasing, 
while  the  proportion  of  teachers  trained  in  the  people's  high  schools 
has  been  on  the  increase.  It  is  notably  the  advanced  people's  high 
school  at  Askov  that  trains  teachers. 

While  the  w^ork  of  this  school,  which  will  be  noted  later,  is  of  high 
grade  and  much  more  advanced  than  that  of  other  high  schools,  the 
institution  scarcely  suffices  as  an  adequate  training  school  for  teachers 
in  these  schools.  Since  1895  university  summer  courses  for  people's 
high-school  teachers  have  been  held  every  year,  chiefly  in  Copenhagen 
and  at  Grundtvig's  high  school  in  Lyngby.  Recognized  scholars  and 
experienced  teachers  have  contributed  much  to  make  these  courses 

*  See  table  in  appendix,  p.  169. 


THE   SCHOOLS  AND   THEIR   LIFE.  Ill 

helpful  and  stimulating  to  high-school  teachers.  Excursions,  visits 
to  museums,  and  other  educative  efforts  connected  with  the  courses 
have  added  to  their  value.  While  the  summer  courses  are  of  un- 
doubted service  to  teachers,  the  work  attempted  in  these  must  be 
regarded  as  supplementary  rather  than  fundamental  in  the  serious 
business  of  training  teachers.  Leading  people's  high-school  men  are 
therefore  much  concerned  about  the  problem  of  teachers'  training. 
They  point  to  the  need  of  an  institution  of  university  rank,  but  per- 
vaded by  the  spirit  of  the  people's  schools  as  a  training  school  for 
their  teachers.  It  is  in  this  connection  that  Grundtvig's  plan  for 
transforming  the  richly  endowed  academy  at  Soro  into  a  school  for 
the  people  is  receiving  renewed  attention.  Whatever  may  be  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  training  teachers,  it  would  seem  but  a 
question  of  time  when  the  present  method  of  inbreeding  and  the  em- 
ployment of  teachers  who  have  no  adequate  training  for  their  work 
will  prove  destructive  to  the  best  interests  of  the  people's  high  schools. 
Though  the  spirit  of  popular  education  which  has  brought  the 
people's  high  schools  into  being  and  has  made  them  powerful  instru- 
ments for  public  service  is  still  robust,  it  is  nevertheless  not  strong 
enough  to  maintain  the  efficiency  of  the  high-school  movement  unless 
it  is  supported  by  a  thorough  educdtional  and  professional  training 
of  the  men  and  women  who  are  to  do  its  work. 

Among  teachers  in  the  agricultural  schools  the  chief  group,  as 
might  be  expected,  is  composed  of  graduates  of  the  State  agricultural 
college,  47  per  cent  of  the  total;  18  per  cent  are  trained  in  people's 
high  schools.^ 

Teachers'  association. — In  1891  was  organized  an  association  of 
teachers  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools.  This 
association  has  been  an  instrument  of  large  value  to  the  high- 
school  movement.  It  has  established  uniform  tuition  rates  and  has 
influenced  legislation  in  behalf  of  the  schools.  To  the  efforts  of  this 
association  is  due  the  establishment  of  the  many  supplementary 
opportunities  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service.  It  has  in- 
stituted conventions  of  people's  high-school  teachers  from  all-  the 
Scandinavian  countries  and  published  reports  of  its  various  meet- 
ings. It  is  largely  the  medium  of  fraternalism  and  exchange  of 
ideas  between  people's  high-school  teachers  in  and  out  of  Denmark. 
The  organ,  '^Hojskolehladet^^''  is  published  under  its  auspices. 

Maintenance. — All  the  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural 
schools  are  private  institutions  owned  and  operated  by  individuals 
or  corporations.  Table  16  indicates  that  principals  are  the  owners 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases.^ 

1  See  table  in  appendix,  p.  170.  *  Dan.  Stat,  op.  cit,  p.  7. 

3334°— 15 8 


112  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


Table  16.- 

—Otcnership  of  schools. 

Owners. 

People's 

high 
schools. 

Agricul- 
tural 
schools. 

Total. 

Principals 

62 

1 
17 

11 

1 
7 

73 

Other  private  persons     .         ... 

2 

Corporations 

24 

Total 

80 

19 

99 

In  recent  years  the  number  of  schools  owned  and  operated  by  cor- 
porations has  been  on  the  increase.  Most  principals,  however,  seem 
to  prefer  owning  their  schools  themselves.  It  leaves  them  much 
more  freedom  than  otherwise  to  operate  the  schools  according  to 
their  own  ideas.  Their  personalities  may  then  have  full  play.  The 
history  of  the  founding  of  schools  may  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing instance :  A  man  who  had  taught  successfully  in  several  people's 
high  schools  was  encouraged  to  start  a  school  of  his  own  in  an  un- 
occupied locality.  In  addition  to  what  money  he  himself  possessed, 
he  borrowed  as  much  as  he  could  from  friends  and  interested  per- 
sons. With  this  money  he  ])urchased  land  and  placed  a  mortgage 
on  it  to  raise  money  for  a  building.  With  tuition  moneys  and  State 
and  local  aid,  he  operates  the  school,  pays  interest  on  the  debt  and  a 
part  of  the  principal  each  year. 

State  aid  has  been  granted  to  people's  high  and  agricultural 
schools  from  the  beginning,  not  only  for  scholarships  to  needy  stu- 
dents, but  also  to  defray  a  part  of  the  operating  expenses  of  the 
schools.  In  1892  the  amount  of  the  State  aid  which  had  gradually 
been  increasing,  was  raised  to  120,000  kroner;  in  1902  to  140,000 
kroner,  and  in  1908  to  150,000  kroner,  together  with  1,500  kroner 
to  each  additional  school  approved  after  that  date.  In  order  to 
share  in  the  State  aid,  a  school  must  be  approved  by  the  State.  Be- 
fore this  can  take  place,  the  school  must  have  been  in  successful 
operation  for  at  least  two  years,  and  have  had  each  year  at  least  10 
students  for  12  months,  20  students  for  6  months,  or  40  students  for 
3  months.  None  of  these  students  may  be  less  than  16  years  of  age, 
and  not  more  than  one-fourth  may  be  between  16  and  18  years. 

By  law  of  1908  the  sum  to  each  school  was  fixed  at  500  kroner  a 
year,  plus  a  sum  proportional  to  the  previous  year's  expenditures  for 
salaries,  equipment,  maintenance,  and  interest  on  debt,  though  not  to 
exceed  one-third  of  the  amount  of  these  expenditures.  The  amount 
of  the  appropriation  directly  to  the  schools  for  1912-13  totals  171,500 
kroner.  There  is  an  additional  appropriation  of  6,200  kroner  for 
equipment,  in  which  people's  high  and  agricultural  schools  may  share 
together  with  technical  and  commercial  schools.^ 

In  addition  to  State  aid  many  schools  receive  aid  from  coimty 
school  funds.     Thus  38  people's  high  schools  and  11  agricultural 

1  Finanslov  for  1912-13. 


AIMS,  CURBICULA,  AND  METHODS.  113 

schools  received,  respectively,  10,875  and  4,500  kroner  in  1910-11 
from  this  source.  Local  communes  aided  3  schools  to  the  extent  of 
830  kroner,  and  10  schools  received  6,305  kroner  from  associations  of 
various  kinds.^ 

Even  though  the  schools  are  thus  aided  by  local  and  State  funds  it 
is  no  easy  task  for  a  principal  without  large  means  to  build  and 
operate  a  people's  high  or  agricultural  school.  The  tuition  rates  are 
very  low,  as  previously  noted,  and  State  and  local  aid  is  relatively 
not  great.  None  but  principals  who  combine  a  variety  of  qualities — 
busines  ability,  intellectual  gifts,  ready  and  forcible  speech,  winning 
personality,  and  popular  instincts — can  succeed.  The  number  of  men 
possessing  this  combination  of  qualities  is  necessarily  small,  and  the 
State  has  therefore  pursued  the  policy  of  giving  such  men  full  liberty 
in  the  conduct  of  their  schools.  There  is  a  mild  form  of  inspection, 
there  being  one  State  inspector  for  all  the  people's  high  and  agricul- 
tural schools,  who  also  inspects  the  schools  of  domestic  science.  His 
visits  are  therefore  very  infrequent.  Most  of  his  work  consists  in 
gathering  statistical  information  relating  to  the  schools  to  satisfy 
himself  and  the  State  that  the  schools  are  doing  the  work  for  which 
the  State  subsidizes  them.  He  has  no  authority  over  the  schools  or 
teachers  to  interfere  with  courses  of  study,  methods,  or  the  like.  The 
teachers  claim  and  receive  absolute  freedom.  Attempts  to  estimate 
the  efficiency  of  the  schools  by  the  introduction  of  a  State  examina- 
tion have  been  stubbornly  resisted.  In  fact  many  schools  would  sur- 
render their  State  grants  rather  than  be  subjected  to  an  examination 
test.  It  is  held  that  the  best  criterion  of  the  efficiency  of  the  schools 
is  the  judgment  of  the  students  themselves,  who  as  grown-up  men 
and  women  are  capable  of  estimating  merits  and  demerits.  Compe- 
tition among  the  schools  and  the  free  movement  of  the  young  people 
from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  serve  as  stimuli  to  keep  the 
schools  up  to  grade.  If  they  fall  below,  the  verdict  is  registered  in 
the  dwindling  of  the  student  body.  Whatever  fallacies  there  may  or 
may  not  be  in  this  laissez  faire  policy  of  the  State  the  fact  remains 
that  the  efficienc}^  of  the  schools  in  performing  tlieir  avowed  service 
has  never  been  seriously  questioned. 


Chapter  IX. 

AIMS,  CURRICULA,  AND  METHODS. 

Aims. — While  the  Danish  people's  high  schools  of  necessity  vary 
in  many  respects,  they  are  united  on  three  cardinal  points — aim. 
chief  elements  in  curriculum,  and  method.  We  have  previously  noted 
the  purposes  and  aims  entertained  for  the  people's  high  schools  by 

» Dan.  Stat.,  op.  cit.,  p.  9. 


114  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

their  educational  forerunners  and  founders.  Without  any  essential 
change,  these  aims  continue  to  guide  the  work  of  the  schools  at  the 
present  time.  Speaking  now  of  the  people's  high  schools,  apart  from 
the  agricultural  schools,  all  judgments  seem  to  agree  that  their  pur- 
pose is  not  vocational,  nor  merely  informational,  but  broadly  cul- 
tural. An  analysis  of  this  cultural  aim,  as  expressed  by  leading  high- 
school  men  and  students  of  the  movement,  indicates  the  following 
elements  to  be  most  clearly  apprehended:  (1)  To  impart  a  harmoni- 
ous view  of  life  by  showing  that  there  is  a  divine  purpose  running 
through  history  and  by  giving  an  insight  into  the  unifying  princi- 
ples of  nature;  (2)  to  awaken  the  minds  and  kindle  the  imaginations 
of  the  students  to  see  the  glory  of  an  ideal  humanity,  participation 
in  which  raises  them  above  the  clods  of  the  earth  into  a  fellowship 
with  God  and  men;  (3)  to  establish  their  characters  on  a  sound 
Christian  foundation;  (4)  to  develop  an  appreciation  for  the  beauti- 
ful and  noble;  (5)  to  instill  a  patriotic  love  for  their  country,  its 
history,  language,  and  literature;  (6)  to  inform  the  students  about 
the  spirit  and  workings  of  their  political  institutions,  in  order  that 
they  may  make  full  use  of  their  free  constitution;  (7)  to  impart 
useful  knowledge. 

Favorable  conditions. — ^Undoubtedly  such  aims  cherished  for  a 
short  people's  high-school  course  seem  pretentious,  but  it  is  w^ell  to 
bear  in  mind  the  conditions  which  a  people's  high  school  in  Denmark 
may  premise  for  its  work  at  the  present  time.  In  the  first  place  it 
has  to  do  not  with  children,  but  with  grown  peoph^  whose  age  is 
about  on  a  par  with  that  of  university  students.  This  in  itself, 
regardless  of  cultural  opportunities,  gives  the  schools  a  student  body 
whose  maturity  makes  possible  a  higher  grade  of  work  than  in  an 
ordinary  continuation  school.  But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the 
young  people  who  come  to  the  high  school  have  had  no  cultural 
opportunities.  The  high  schools  have  been  at  work  for  over  half  a 
century  and  have  raised  the  entire  cultural  level  of  the  population. 
A  young  person  reared  in  a  home  influenced  by  this  culture  can  not 
but  have  absorbed  something  from  it.  Furthermore,  one  may  safely 
assume  that  a  young  person  who  hopes  to  go  to  a  high  school  at  20 
will  not  in  the  meantime  neglect  the  opportunities  which  will  pre- 
pare him  for  such  a  course.  Continuation  schools,  the  local  church, 
young  people's  societies,  the  village  lecturing  society,  newspapers 
and  magazines,  universally  read,  afford  manifold  educative  oppor- 
tunities to  the  young  person  whose  interests  draw  him  in  that  direc- 
tion. Even  though  the  preparation  consists  in  nothing  more  than 
a  longing  for  the  high  school,  cherished  through  years  of  waiting, 
this  alone  cultivates  in  the  young  person  an  intellectual  thirst  which 
is  of  prime  importance  in  the  search  for  knowledge.  In  order  to  be 
able  to  take  a  high-school  course,  the  young  man  has  perhaps  been 


AIMS,  CURKICULA,  AND  METHODS. 


115 


saving  up  his  hard-earned  money  for  years  and  has  accumulated  a 
store  of  energy,  hopes,  and  anticipations  that  make  him  an  eager 
student.  Add  to  these  considerations  a  sturdy  health,  which  affords 
the  physical  basis  for  energetic  intellectual  work,  and  there  results 
a  student  body  eminently  equipped,  for  fruitful  study. 

Curriculum. — The  situation  presented  each  year  by  the  people's 
high  schools  is  undoubtedly  unique  in  the  educational  field  through- 
out the  world.  Over  7,000  grown-up  young  men  and  women,  largely 
from  rural  homes,  and  usually  with  an  education  of  only  elementary 
character,  come  to  receive  in  five  or  three  months  the  elements  of  a 
cultural  education.  How  shall  the  schools  meet  this  unique  oppor- 
tunity ?  What  sort  of  a  curriculum  are  they  to  offer  ?  Clearly  they 
can  not  proceed  in  the  manner  of  an  ordinary  higher  school  which 
has  years  for  the  attainment  of  its  purpose.  A  different  set  of  prin- 
ciples must  determine  the  curriculum.  Every  element  suggested  for 
the  course  of  study  must  be  subjected  to  the  question,  What  edu- 
cational value  does  the  subject  possess  to  entitle  it  to  a  place  in  a 
three  or  five  months'  people's  high-school  course?  No  subject,  even 
though  in  itself  valuable,  can  be  given  a  place  if  it  does  not  con- 
tribute to  the  fulfillment  of  the  special  aim  of  the  people's  high 
school.  The  limited  time  available  precludes  all  subjects  except 
those  possessing  a  maximum  of  potentiality  for  attaining  this  aim, 
and,  finally,  every  subject  must  be  selected  with  reference  to  the 
capacities  and  ages  of  the  student  body.  Tested  by  these  criteria  a 
vast  amount  of  material  found  in  ordinary  school  curricula  is  of 
course  discarded.  The  result  of  the  application  of  the  above  princi- 
ples is  shown  by  Table  17,'  which  indicates  the  subjects  found  in 
the  average  high-school  curriculum,  together  with  the  number  of 
hours  devoted  to  each. 

Table  17. — Subjects  in  people's  high-school  curriculum,  with  the  average  number 
of  hours  of  instruction  per  week  in  each. 


Subjects. 


Boys'  course 
(five  months) 


Girls'  course 

(three 

months). 


Danish 

Penmanship . .  .\p.  .•# 

History  of  literature  and  literary  readings. 

History  and  civics 

Geography 

Sciences  and  hygiene 

Arithmetic 

Drawing 

Singing 

Gymnastics 

Household  arts 

Agriculture,  etc 

other  subjects 


8.0 
1.1 
5.2 
9.5 
2.4 
4.2 
5.0 
2.5 
1.1 
5.4 
.0 
4.2 
1.5 


Total. 


50. 


7.7 

.8 

5.9 

9.3 

2.3 

3.8 

3.6 

.8 

1.3 

5.6 

9.6 

.0 

1.0 


51.7 


>  Dan.  Stat.,  Folkehojskoler  og  Landbriigsskoler,  1906-1911,  p.  44. 


116  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

Absence  of  disciplinary  subjects. — The  program  is  interesting,  in 
the  first  place,  for  what  it  does  not  contain.  Foreign  languages  are 
altogether  lacking  in  the  average  school.  Some  instruction  in  Ger- 
man and  English  is  given  in  the  advanced  courses  at  Askov  and  in 
one  or  two  other  schools.  Disciplinary  mathematics,  too,  are  missing. 
In  general,  subjects  relying  for  their  justification  upon  a  disciplinary 
conception  of  education  have  no  place  in  the  people's  high-school 
curriculum. 

Danish. — The  table  clearly  indicates  that  Danish  and  history  oc- 
cupy the  largest  places  in  the  curriculum.  Strictly  speaking,  Danish 
includes  reading,  grammar,  orthography,  and  composition.  A  total 
of  eight  hours  a  week  is  devoted  to  these  in  boys'  courses.  The  num- 
ber of  hours  is  increased  by  5.2  if  the  history  of  literature  and  literary 
readings  be  added.  Table  18^  indicates  the  average  number  of 
hours  in  a  term  devoted  to  each  of  these  subjects.  Formal  instruc- 
tion in  Danish  is  pursued  only  so  far  as  is  strictly  necessary  to  enable 
the  students  to  use  correct  orthography  and  to  speak  a  language  free 
from  colloquialisms.  The  instruction  in  language  is  by  no  means 
regarded  as  an  exercise  in  general  mental  discipline.  Its  aim  is  ex- 
ceedingly specific  and  utilitarian.  That  it  gives  a  cultural  by- 
product— love  for  the  native  tongue — is  in  perfect  accord  with  the 
central  purpose  of  the  high  school.  The  history  of  literature  con- 
cerns chiefly  Denmark,  although  it  is  not  limited  to  this  country. 
The  cultural  influence  of  the  chief  movements  and  representative 
men  is  treated,  and  literary  selections  illustrative  of  each  are  read 
and  stu.  ied. 

Table  18. — SuJ}jects  and  average  niim'ber  of  hours  of  instruction  in  Danish  in 
hoys'  five  months''  course. 

Hours. 
Reading 39 

Grammar 38 

-     Orthography 46 

Composition 26 

History. — Table  19^  indicates  something  of  the  range  of  work  in 
history.  Scandinavia  (Denmark  especially)  receives  the  greatest  em- 
phasis, while  general  history  holds  a  place  of  secondary  importance. 
The  place  given  to  Bible,  church,  and  missionary  histofy  is  relatively 
large  for  a  school  of  general  culture.  This  fact  indicates  very  dis- 
tinctly the  importance  which  the  people's  high  schools  attach  to  the 
religious  element  in  the  history  of  the  world's  culture.  The  work  in 
civics,  which  is  statistically  included  with  history,  occupies  a  little 
less  than  one  hour  a  week.  It  aims  to  give  an  appreciation  of  the 
constitution  and  the  forms  of  State  and  local  government,  so  that  the 

iDan.  Stat,  op.  cit,  p.  461. 


AIMS,  CURBICULA,  AND  METHODS.  117 

students  may  intelligently  face  their  duties,  privileges,  and  problems 
as  citizens. 

Table  19. — Suhjects  and  average  number  of  hours  of  instruction  in  history  in  a 
boys'  five  months'  course. 

Hours. 

Scandinavian  history • 73 

General  history 57 

Church,  Bible,  and  missionary  history 33 

Miscellaneous  lectures 7 

The  people's  high  school  has  been  called  an  historical  high  school, 
and  with  truth.  The  historical  point  of  view  is  uppermost  through- 
out; even  the  sciences  are  approached  historically,  as  will  later  ap- 
pear. The  number  of  hours  actually  devoted  to  instruction  in  his- 
tory is  so  large  as  also  to  warrant  that  epithet  being  applied  to  the 
school.  When,  how^ever,  the  statement  is  made  that  two-thirds  of 
the  time  in  these  schools  is  devoted  to  history,  the  actual  state  of 
affairs  suffers  misrepresentation.  If  to  history  and  civics  (9.5  hours 
a  week)  be  added  history  of  literature  (2  hours),  and  if  the  science 
instruction  (4.2  hours)  be  also  classified  as  history,  the  total  of  all 
these  gives  only  15.7  hours  a  week.  This  constitutes  less  than  one- 
third  (31  per  cent)  of  the  total  number  of  hours  of  instruction  per 
week  in  all  subjects. 

Arithmetic. — Of  much  importance,  as  measured  by  the  time  ele- 
ment, is  arithmetic.  This  subject  is  included  because  of  its  extreme 
utility.  The  work,  however,  is  limited  to  the  exact  needs  of  the 
students,  only  such  portions  of  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  accounts 
being  included  as  are  necessary  for  the  average  farmer  or  artisan  in 
his  vocation. 

Table  20. — Subjects  and  average  number  of  hours  of  instruction  in  sciences  in 
boys'  five  months'  course. 

Hours. 
Physics 38 

Zoology  and  botany 11 

Chemistry 13 

Hygiene 18 

/Sciences. — Sciences  and  hygiene  occupy  4.2  hours  a  week.  The 
relative  importance  of  each  subject  in  this  group  appears  from 
Table  20.^  Physics  holds  the  first  place,  as  might  be  expected. 
Clearly,  however,  the  work  in  this,  as  well  as  the  other  subjects,  must 
be  limited  to  the  elements.  Nevertheless,  the  sciences  hold  an  estab- 
lished place  in  the  schools,  for  the  hours  that  are  assigned  to  them, 
even  though  few,  give  the  students  a  reasonably  intelligent  apprecia- 
tion of  their  environment. 

1  Dan.  Stat.,  op.  cit.,  p.  46. 


118  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

Geography. — Geography,  handled  in  a  large  way,  affords  an  ex- 
cellent means  of  familiarizing  the  Danish  young  people  with  their 
native  country.  A  study  is  made  of  its  physical  characteristics,  the 
means  of  access  to  its  various  parts,  its  resources,  how  these  may  be 
developed,  and  the  economic  problems  arising  therefrom.  In  imagi- 
nation the  entire  country  is  traversed,  the  occupations  and  habits  of 
the  people  in  the  various  parts  being  studied.  Attention  is  also 
given  to  a  comparative  study  of  neighboring  countries  and  the  com- 
mercial relations  in  which  Denmark  is  involved.  Geography  treated 
in  a  patriotic  spirit  is  one  of  the  chief  instruments  in  the  hands  of 
the  schools  for  instilling  love  of  the  fatherland. 

Drawing  and  penmanship. — Drawing  is  included  chiefly  in  order 
to  afford  an  avenue  for  self-expression  and  to  give  a  sense  of  form. 
That  it  possesses  practical  usefulness,  too,  for  the  farmer  boy,  is 
not  difficult  to  demonstrate.  The  small  average  amount  of  time  de- 
voted to  penmanship,  1.1  hours  a  week,  is  explainable  by  the  fact 
that  many  schools  give  no  time  to  this  subject,  while  none  gives  a 
great  deal.  It  is  not  necessary,  for  writing  is  one  of  the  arts  exceed- 
ingly well  taught  by  the  elementary  schools. 

Singing. — Singing  holds  a  much  larger  place  in  the  people's  high 
school  than  is  indicated  by  the  1.1  hours  a  week  assigned  to  it.  It  is 
formal  instruction  in  singing  which  occupies  this  insignificant  place, 
many  schools  giving  no  time  to  this  subject.  But  the  singing  of 
songs  is  an  essential  characteristic  of  every  people's  high  school. 
The  day  begins  with  song.  Usually  a  song  is  sung  at  the  beginning 
and  sometimes  at  the  end  of  every  hour  of  work.  A  person  inter- 
ested in  the  education  of  the  plain  people  finds  his  heart  beating 
faster  when  he  sees  and  hears  150  brawny  young  farmers  singing 
with  all  their  hearts  one  of  the  stirring  songs  that  have  moved  people 
to  action.  The  songs  are  of  the  most  varied  character,  dealing  with 
religion,  patriotism,  love,  home,  geography,  history,  and  folk  lore. 
A  book  containing  hundreds  of  songs  has  been  edited  and  published 
by  the  teachers'  association  for  use  in  the  schools.  Some  unfriendly 
critics  of  the  people's  high  school  have  facetiously  made  the  charge 
that  the  students  do  not  learn  anything  but  singing.  There  may  ap- 
parently be  some  reason  for  the  criticism,  but  it  is  perhaps  not  a 
serious  danger  that  comes  from  this  passionate  devotion  to  song. 

Agriculture. — As  previously  indicated,  the  work  in  agriculture 
and  related  subjects  is  not  essential  to  a  people's  high-school  course. 
In  many  schools,  however,  which  do  not  pretend  to  give  instruction 
in  agriculture,  series  of  lectures  on  agricultural  subjects  are  given 
which  are  statistically  listed  under  this  caption.  This  accounts  in 
part  for  the  relatively  large  number  of  hours  (4.2)  devoted  to  this 
subject. 


AIMS^  CUKEICULA^  AND  METHODS.  119 

Gymnastics.— ^ysi&o[\?it\G  gymnastics  constitute  a  part  of  every 
day's  program.  A  gymnasium  is  considered  as  essential  as  a  lecture 
room  to  the  equipment  of  a  school.  In  fact  it  is  largely  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  people's  high  schools  that  gymnastics  have  been 
so  generally  introduced  into  the  school  life  of  Denmark.  A  modified 
form  of  the  Swedish  Lyng  system  is  used,  and  every  student  is  given 
the  special  attention  his  needs  require.  Gymnastics  are  not  looked 
upon  as  a  hateful  drill  by  these  sturdy  rural  people,  but  as  a  joyous 
opportunity  for  physical  movement  and  for  building  up  their  bodies 
into  still  more  robust  health. 

Variations  in  emphasis. — Additional  light  is  thrown  upon  the  cur- 
riculum by  the  differences  in  attention  devoted  to  the  various  sub- 
jects.^ Danish,  historj^,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  gymnastics  are 
found  in  all  the  schools.  The  variation  in  the  number  of  hours  de- 
voted to  these  is  very  large,  but  there  is  a  fairly  well-defined  mode 
in  each  subject,  most  clearly  marked  in  the  case  of  gynmastics. 
Physics  is  found  in  all  but  one  school,  literary  readings  in  all  but 
three,  drawing  in  all  but  six,  agriculture  in  all  but  seven,  and  hy- 
giene in  all  but  nine.  The  remaining  subjects  are  missing  in  a  large 
number  of  the  schools.  Least  uniformity  is  present  in  the  case  of 
literary  readings  and  agriculture. 

Features  of  girls'^  curriculum. — Boys  and  girls  pursue  essentially 
the  same  program  except  that  the  girls  have  no  agriculture  and  de- 
vote considerable  time  to  household  arts.  Sciences,  arithmetic,  and 
drawing  also  show  fewer  hours  per  week  for  girls.  The  distinctive 
feature  of  the  girls'  program  is  the  attention  given  to  household  arts. 
This  work  consists  largely  in  the  weaving  of  fabrics  of  artistic  pat- 
tern. A  revival  of  this  household  art  has  swept  over  the  Scandi- 
navian countries,  and  the  courses  in  the  people's  high  schools  are  at 
once  the  cause  and  effect  of  the  revival.  Perhaps  in  no  other  way  do 
the  schools  so  w^ell  demonstrate  their  devotion  to  that  which  is  of  the 
people  as  by  their  furtherance  of  this  art.  They  love  the  homemade 
and  the  genuine.  Sewing  and  embroidery  also  occupy  some  of  the 
time  devoted  to  household  arts. 

An  interesting  feature  of  gymnastics  in  girls'  courses  is  the  atten- 
tion given  to  folk  dances.  These,  too,  have  been  revived  and  adapted 
to  educational  purposes.  They  form  a  very  pleasant  variation  in  the 
work  of  formal  gymnastics,  affording  a  means  of  healthful  recreation 
and  of  developing  grace  of  movement. 

Advanced  courses  at  Ashov. — Work  of  a  somewhat  higher  grade 
than  in  ordinary  people's  high  schools  is  done  in  the  advanced  school 
at  Askov.  Before  entering  here  students  have  attended  a  people's 
high  school  or  other  school  of  more  than  elementary  character.    The 

1  See  table  in  appendix,  p.  170. 


120 


THE  DANISH  PEOPLE  S  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


work  at  Askov  extends  over  two  terms  of  six  months  each.  Table  21 
indicates  the  scope  of  the  instruction.^  As  will  be  noticed,  the  total 
number  of  hours  per  week  is  even  greater  than  in  the  ordinary  peo- 
ple's high  school.  In  explanation  of  this  large  total  it  may  be  in 
order  to  mention  that  a  great  many  of  the  hours  of  work  require  no 
preparation  on  the  part  of  the  students.  Even  so,  it  is  plainly  evi- 
dent that  the  students  in  these  schools  lead  a  very  busy  life. 


Table  21. — Curriculum  of  advanced  people's  high  school  at  Askov. 


Subjects. 


Danish 

Scandinavian  literature 

General  history 

Scandinavian  history. . 

Geography 

Civics 

Mathematics 

Historical  physics 

English  or  German 

Drawing 

Singing 


Hours  of  instruction 
per  week. 


First 


Second 
year. 


Subjects. 


Arithmetic 

Hygiene 

The  life  of  language 

General  lectures 

Literature  of  the  world. 

History  of  religion 

Nature  study 

Gymnastics 


Total. 


Hours  of  instruction 
per  week. 


First 


52 


Second 
year. 


Methods. — While  the  people's  high  schools  possess  unusual  cur- 
ricula, the  institutions  are  perhaps  still  more  unique  in  their  methods. 
Ordinary  higher  schools,  that  deal  with  youth  through  a  series  of 
years,  proceed  to  impart  a  mass  of  formal  knowledge.  When  the 
young  person  has  developed  sufficient  powers  of  generalization,  he 
will  come  to  see  this  knowledge  as  a  whole  with  the  parts  properly 
related.  He  can  estimate  the  relative  value  of  each  and  thus  get  a 
harmonious  view  of  life.  The  people's  high  schools  likewise  en- 
deavor to  give  the  essentials  of  culture,  to  put  their  students  into  an 
intelligent  relation  to  the  spiritual  possessions  of  the  race.  But 
their  method  must  be  different.  The  limited  time  available  does  not 
permit  of  this  slow  process.  Furthermore,  they  are  not  dealing  with 
children,  but  with  grown  people  who  are  capable  of  seeing  the  broad 
lines  of  development  when  mapped  out  for  them,  and  who  have 
developed  a  sense  of  values  which  enables  them  to  judge  between 
essentials  and  details.  Cultural  materials  must  be  presented  to 
these  adult  students  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  see  the  inherent 
values  involved,  and  the  data  must  be  organized  in  such  a  way  that 
the  students  recognize  the  rational  connection. 

In  other  words,  "  the  people's  high  schools  must  give  the  mate- 
rials for  a  philosophy  of  life  in  their  organic  relationships,  so  that 
the  youth  not  only  "may  take  away  with  him  a  mass  of  facts,  but 


^Announcement  for  1912-13, 


AIMS^  CURRICULA,  AND  METHODS.  123 

see  the  organic  relations  among  them."  ^  In  order  to  affect  him  per- 
manently, the  subject  matter  must  be  woven  into  the  warp  and  woof 
of  his  personality. 

Method  in  history. — The  method  used  is  illustrated  in  the  best  way 
by  the  treatment  of  history.  If  a  people's  high  school  teacher  is  to 
discuss  the  Persian  Wars/  he  will  previously  have  told  about  the 
older  nations  and,  most  recently,  of  the  Persian  empire.  He  will 
also  have  had  opportunities  of  giving  the  students  some  notion  of 
the  spirit  and  life  of  the  Greek  people,  and  of  how  'these  differed 
from  the  Asiatic  in  mode  of  thought.  Having  thus  awakened  a 
desire  to  pursue  the  historical  movement  westward,  he  takes  up  the 
Persian  Wars.  With  as  much  detail  as  is  necessary  for  a  vivid  pic- 
ture he  tells  how  the  Persians  and  the  Greeks  approached  nearer  and 
nearer  to  each  other  until  they  finally  clashed  on  Greek  soil,  and 
how  the  little  Grecian  nation  dared  to  enter  the  unequal  fight  to  pre- 
serve its  liberty.  He  tells  of  the  great  men  who  by  the  magic  of 
their  spirit  kept  their  countrymen  awake,  led  them  in  battle,  and 
supported  their  courage  in  moments  of  distress.  He  tells  of  the 
glorious  combats  at  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  Salamis,  and  Platea. 
He  must,  of  course,  tell  the  story  well,  so  that  the  heroic  figures  of 
Miltiades,  Leonidas,  and  Themistocles  stand  out  vividly  before  the 
eyes  of  the  students.  He  must,  furthermore,  narrate  the  events  so 
that  in  the  very  story  the  students  may  see  the  deep,  hidden  con- 
nection between  events.  They  must  feel  something  of  that  which 
drove  the  Greek  people  into  this  crucial  fight.  In  addition  he  must 
seek  to  fix  the  lessons  of  the  story  by  clarifying  and  amplifying  the 
idealistic  elements  involved.  He  must  therefore  complete  his  nar- 
rative by  a  historical-philosophical  elaboration.  It  must  not  appear 
as  an  accident  that  the  Darius  and  Xerxes  millions  were  humbled 
by  the  little  Grecian  band.  The  students  must  be  led  to  see  the  law 
of  history  and  of  life  according  to  which  the  result  was  inevitable. 
They  must  understand  the  fundamental  superiority  of  the  little 
band  which,  "  obedient  to  the  laws  of  Sparta,"  in  love  of  freedom, 
country,  and  honor  braided  their  hair  and  decked  themselves  as  for 
a  festival  when  they  went  out  into  the  great  combat  to  die  the  death 
of  heroes.  They  must  understand  the  moral  superiority  of  these 
people  over  the  blindly  driven  masses  of  Persians.  They  must  like- 
wise be  led  to  see  that  the  sacrifice  of  Leonidas  was  not  a  senseless 
act  of  a  man  "  who  lets  his  people  be  cut  down  in  a  mountain  pass 
by  a  superior  force  and  even  then  does  not  win,"  but  that  this  well- 
considered  act  was  really  a  deed  with  large  decisive  results. 

The  teacher  must  furthermore  make  it  clear  to  the  students  how 
the  achievement  of  the  Greeks  was  possible  for  a  people  of  their 

*  Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  109flf. 


122  THE  DAITISH   people's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

spirit  and  history.  For  this  purpose  he  must  explain  the  character- 
istic contents  of  Grecian  mythology  and  folklore,  and  by  the  help 
of  translations  and  stories  give  them  some  idea  of  the  Homeric 
poetry.  He  must  show  that  out  of  the  differing  beliefs  and  spirit  of 
the  peoples  arise  differing  deeds  and  lives.  Along  with  this,  he  must 
awaken  in  the  souls  of  his  hearers  a  desire  to  live  a  similarly  full, 
generous,  and  beautiful  life,  for  their  own  satisfaction  and  for  the 
gain  and  glory  of  their  country.  All  that  is  great  and  noble  in  the 
history  of  past  nations  must,  by  the  instrumentality  of  the  teacher, 
be  permitted  to  sink  itself  into  the  lives  of  the  students  and  call 
forth  the  elements  of  a  similar  life. 

Use  of  lectures. — It  is  clear  that  such  a  presentation  of  history  can 
be  successfully  made  only  by  the  use  of  the  human  voice  in  lectures. 
It  has  been  the  experience  of  the  Danes,  as  perhaps  of  many  other 
peoples,  that  efforts  at  the  enlightenment  of  the  common  people  by 
means  of  learned  books  have  proved  futile.  Books  appeal  primarily 
to  the  intelligence  which  is  least  developed  in  the  case  of  the  meagerly 
educated.  The  Danish  people's  high  schools  are  concerned  with  peo- 
ple whose  intellectual  level  must  be  called  primitive  in  comparison 
with  the  materials  with  which  they  deal.  They  must  therefore  ap- 
peal not  so  much  to  the  understanding  of  the  students  as  to  their 
hearts  and  their  personalities.  For  this,  vivifying  human  speech  far 
surpasses  the  "  dead  words  "  of  books.  In  lecturing,  the  teachers  use 
no  notes,  or  at  least  very  few.  Students  likewise  take  no  notes  during 
the  progress  of  a  lecture.  The  eyes  of  teacher  and  students  meet. 
This  the  teachers  consider  essential  to  success.  They  want  the  stu- 
dents' undivided  attention.  They  want  to  see  the  students'  faces 
and  know  whether  their  spirits  are  responsive  to  their  own.  Much 
of  the  teachers'  inspiration  in  their  work  comes  from  the  gleaming 
eye  and  the  sympathetic  look  that  meets  them  as  they  watch  the 
faces  of  their  hearers.  On  the  other  hand,  if  their  discourse  is  fail- 
ing to  reach  home,  this  verdict,  too,  is  immediately  recorded  in  the 
faces  before  them,  and  the  teachers  can  make  the  adjustments  neces- 
sary to  regain  attention. 

Secret  of  success — Mastery  of  subject. — One  may  ask  how  it  is 
possible  to  speak  with  profitable  results  to  such  people  about  themes 
which  seem  to  lie  above  their  comprehending  level.  This  is  one  form 
of  the  problem  that  has  been  faced  over  and  over  again  by  people 
who  really  believe  in  culture  for  the  common  people.  It  is  therefore 
worth  while  to  study  the  method  used  by  the  teachers  in  these  insti- 
tutions which,  it  is  agreed,  have  with  large  success  bridged  the  gap 
usually  existing  between  the  common  people  and  the  cultural  posses- 
sion of  their  country  and  race. 


AIMS,  CURRICULA,  AND  METHODS.  123 

As  the  scientific  writer  of  history,  so  the  people's  high-school 
teacher  of  history  must  have  attained  to  a  certain  view  of  the  chief 
lines  of  historical  devolpment  by  the  study  of  the  historical  materials 
bearing  upon  the  period  under  discussion.  He  can  not  transmit  an 
abridged  form  of  general  history,  but  must  give  the  development  in 
large  generalizations  formed  on  the  basis  of  wide  study.  As  library 
aids,  therefore,  the  teachers  do  not  use  textbooks  or  syllabi,  but  such 
works  as  those  of  Schlosser,  Eanke,  Taine,  Gibbon,  Hume,  Macauley, 
or  Ullstein.  In  Scandinavian  history  they  make  large  use  of  the 
readily  available  source  material.  The  teacher  must  have  lived  him- 
self so  thoroughly  into  the  historical  situation  that  he  speaks  with 
conviction  and  enthusiasm,  as  it  were,  out  of  his  own  life  experience. 

Selection  of  materixil  for  treatment. — Having  acquired  this  knowl- 
edge and  insight  into  historical  trend,  it  remains  to  find  the  proper 
means  and  manner  of  expression.  He  may  not  bring  into  his  pres- 
entation the  materials  which  have  contributed  to  form  his  present 
viewpoint.  "He  tells  things  straightforwardly,  just  as  he  now  sees 
them  to  be."  Neither  does  he  discuss  in  abstract  form  the  laws  that 
govern  the  historical  phenomena,  but  endeavors  to  find  the  crucial 
point  in  the  development  and  then  let  the  operations  of  the  laws  ap- 
pear through  the  concrete  event  or  individual.  In  short,  the  teacher 
must  have  his  eyes  fixed  upon  the  great  course  of  the  world's  history 
and  the  points  where  the  current  is  the  strongest.  When  he  sees 
this  clearly  he  selects  the  individual  men  and  events  which  mark  the 
main  stream  and  its  currents.  These,  then,  he  treats  so  fully  that 
they  arouse  the  vivid  participation  of  the  hearers. 

By  this  manner  of  treatment  a  great  many  things  that  are  found 
in  a  textbook  in  history  are  of  course  left  out.  Thus,  while  a  n^ove- 
ment  in  one  country  may  be  treated  vety  fully,  a  parallel  movement 
in  another  country  may  be  passed  over  with  a  mere  mention.  Instead 
of  saying  something  about  a  long  series  of  kings,  a  single  representa- 
tive may  be  chosen  for  treatment  while  the  rest  are  left  untouched. 
A  single  battle  may  represent  a  long  war,  and  many  wars  are  passed 
over  altogether  as  contributing  nothing  to  the  world's  progress.  The 
great,  the  significant,  the  decisive  is  always  selected  for  treatment. 

Full  treatment  of  selected  material. — As  a  result  of  this  selection 
the  portions  that  are  presented  are  given  so  much  greater  attention 
and  fuller  treatment.  Prominent  personages  and  events  are  made  to 
stand  out  clearly,  and,  as  a  result,  impress  themselves  upon  the  memory 
and  influence  personality.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  people's 
high  school  it  is  infinitely  more  fruitful,  for  instance,  in  the  treat- 
ment of  American  history,  to  say  something  significant  about  Thomas 
Jefferson  and  his  service  to  republicanism  than  to  present  in  order 
the  dates  and  events  of  all  the  early  presidential  administrations. 


124  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

Individual  men  are  given  great  prominence,  so  much  so  that  history 
at  times  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  a  series  of  biographies.  In  pre- 
senting an  individual's  part  in  history,  however,  the  teacher  does  not 
merely  give  a  personal  biography.  He  seeks  to  show  the  man  as  the 
exponent  of  a  principle,  the  central  force  in  a  movement,  or  the 
"  man  of  destiny  "  called  forth  to  meet  a  crisis.  The  German  Refor- 
mation is  tied  up  with  the  personality  of  Luther,  while  Bismarck 
symbolizes  the  spirit  of  German  nationalism.  Thus  is  presented  a 
philosophy  of  history  which  the  student  can  understand.  As  em- 
phasis is  placed  upon  history-making  men  and  events,  so  efforts  are 
also  made  to  show  the  large  workings  of  the  moral  laws  in  history 
and  the  great  forces  that  make  for  and  against  national  stability. 

Severe  demands  on  teachers. — It  need  not  be  stated  that  this  type 
of  history  teaching  makes  severe  demands  upon  the  teachers.  It 
requires  not  only  sound  scholarship  but  forceful  personality  and 
power  of  expression.  The  ability  possessed  by  some  of  the  teachers 
to  make  history  speak  to  these  rural  young  people  is  indeed  a  revela- 
tion of  the  possibilities  of  their  method.  By  constant  and  long- 
continued  practice  they  have  acquired  the  ability  to  handle  their 
subjects  so  skillfully,  with  such  clarity  of  thought  and  such  simple 
language  that  even  the  unlettered  youth  can  follow  the  development 
of  the  thought.  To  be  sure  misfits  are  occasionally  met  with,  but 
the  free  movement  of  students  throughout  the  country  serves  to  weed 
out  the  unfit.  Only  those  suited  for  the  work  can  succeed.  Success 
requires  intellectual  ability,  but  it  also  demands  the  qualities  of 
heart  which  enable  the  teacher  to  live  and  feel  with  his  subject  and 
with  his  students.    Bredsdorff  says :  ^ 

Onfy  that  history  instruction  ha^  power  which  is  in  such  close  compact  with 
life  itself  that  life's  deep  forces  mingle  themselves  in  it,  and  life's  essence  moves 
through  it  with  the  power  of  reality.  It  is  clear  then  that  effective  history 
Instruction  is  that  in  which  life  is  felt  as  a  stream  rising  in  the  remotest  past 
and  rushing  on  toward  the  sea  of  eternity.  We  ourselves  are  in  the  midst  of  it, 
Its  waters  foam  around  us  and  through  us,  so  that  we  feel  ourselves  as  part  of 
It  and  through  joys  and  sorrows  we  are  carried  on  to  the  unending. 

Method  in  sciences. — Since  the  historic  approach  to  a  subject, 
especially  by  the  people's  high-school  method,  places  the  student  in 
such  vital,  personal  contact  with  it,  there  has  been  developed  a 
method  by  which  also  the  sciences  are  studied  historically.  Instead 
of  presenting  the  body  of  scientific  knowledge  systematically,  the 
progress  of  the  discovery  of  scientific  truth  is  traced  up  through  the 
centuries.  By  this  method  the  students  are  constantly  trained  to 
look  at  natural  phenomena,  not  apart  but  in  their  relation  to  man. 
Furthermore,  the  student  comes  to  share  in  the  problems  and  the 

»  Quoted  by  HoUmann,  op.  clt.,  p.  121. 


AIMS,  CURKICULA,  AND  METHODS.  125 

joys  of  the  inventor  and  discoverer,  and  thus  acquires  scientific 
knowledge  more  personally  and  more  thoroughly  than  otherwise. 
The  method  which  is  used  in  practically  all  branches  of  science  is 
best  described  by  the  master  of  the  art,  Paul  la  Cour,  who  alone,  or 
in  collaboration  with  others,  has  published  several  textbooks  in 
science  built  upon  the  historic  method.  In  a  lecture^  setting  forth 
the  possibilities  of  the  metliod  as  applied  to  astromechanics  he  says 
in  part: 

In  this  connection  attention  is  directed  to  the  great  thinker  Archimedes,  who 
is  already  well  known  from  general  history.  The  students  should  first  be  made 
acquainted  with  his  life  and  his  exploits  in  defense  of  Syracuse.  Thereupon 
they  are  told  that  he  considered  this  service  of  small  importance,  but  wished 
that  his  tombstone  might  bear  the  image  of  a  cone,  sphere,  and  cylinder  in  mem- 
ory of  the  fact  that  his  intellect  had  been  able  to  solve  the  relation  beween  the 
volumes  of  these  bodies.  Then  the  students  are  excellently  prepared  to  follow 
out  the  mechanical  principles  of  Archimedes  with  interest  and  attention.  These 
are  so  necessary  in  order  to  experience  the  pleasure  of  one's  own  ability  of 
thought,  but  are  often  lacking  when  mechanical  principles  are  presented  sys- 
tematically and  abstractly. 

After  the  discovery  of  America  sciences  are  again  revived  in  Europe.  Galileo 
begins  where  Archimedes  left  off  some  17  or  IS  centuries  before.  Galileo's  life 
and  discoveries,  like  those  of  Archimedes,  are  eminently  suitable  as  material 
for  instruction.    They  need  merely  to  be  told  very  simply. 

After  having  mentioned  a  few  Aristotelian  misconceptions  in  regard  to  the 
characteristics  of  air,  one  passes  on  to  the  discovery  of  atmospheric  pressure 
by  Galileo's  pupil,  Torricelli.  Thereupon  follows  Pascal's  convincing  proof  of 
the  correctness  of  this  discovery  and  the  commotion  produced  by  it  all  over  the 
civilized  world.  Then  are  told  the  stories  of  Otto  V.  Guerick's  hasty  attempt 
at  making  a  fire  engine  into  an  air  pump  and  his  experiments  before  the  Ger- 
man Parliament,  and  also  Robert  Boyle's  successful  construction  of  an  air 
pump  and  scientific  experiments  with  it.  Some  time  later  follow  the  invention 
of  the  balloon  and  the  discovery  of  the  elements  of  the  air,  which,  so  to  speak, 
opened  the  door  for  the  great  advance  in  chemistry  during  the  last  century. 
Dynamics  are  studied  in  connection  with  Galileo  and  Stevin,  the  Hollander 
Huyghens,  the  inventor  of  the  pendulum,  and  his  great  English  contemporaries. 

Finally,  modern  astronomy  is  taken  up.  Copernicus  makes  such  a  thorough 
historic  study  of  the  Grecians  that  he  not  only  announces  anew  that  the  earth 
moves  around  the  sun,  but  adds — what  the  Greeks  did  not  say — that  also  the 
planets  revolve  around  the  sun. 

Then  Tycho  Brahe  builds  up  from  the  bottom  by  making  ingenious  and  care- 
ful measurements  with  excellently  constructed  instruments.  His  pupil,  Kepler, 
formulates  the  results  into  the  three  laws  which  make  his  name  immortal,  and 
Isaac  Newton  explains  celestial  mechanics  so  thoroughly  that  it  was  said  in 
the  Royal  Scientific  Society  in  London  that  "  there  was  nothing  more  to  be 
done."  After  this  trio,  whose  works  ought  never  to  be  studied  otherwise  than 
in  their  historic  connections,  one  naturally  considers  several  contemporary 
and  later  astronomers,  as  Ole  Romer,  Bradley,  Bessel,  Jansen,  and  others. 

1  Delivered  at  a  meeting  of  people's  high-school  teachers  at  Hvilan,  Sweden,  1890. 
Printed  in  proceedings,  p.  81  fl. 


126  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

General  use  of  lecture  method. — The  lecture  method  is  used  in  all 
subjects  capable  of  its  application.  Opportunity  for  the  use  of  the 
"living  word,"  for  the  contact  of  spirit  with  spirit,  is  sought  for 
always.  In  addition  to  the  subjects  already  mentioned,  history  and 
sciences,  the  method  is  used  in  literature,  civics,  geography,  hygiene, 
and,  to  some  extent,  in  the  study  of  Danish.  The  reading  aloud  of 
literary  selections  is  a  favorite  form  of  spending  one  of  the  evening 
hours. 

Use  of  texthoohs. — In  general,  textbooks  are  used  only  in  subjects 
which  do  not  lend  themselves  well  to  the  use  of  the  lecture  method. 
In  recent  years,  however,  there  has  been  in  certain  quarters  an  in- 
crease in  the  use  of  books  and  in  the  emphasis  on  work  by  the  students 
themselves.  In  most  schools  now  several  hours  a  day  are  spent  by 
students  in  individual  work,  chiefly  in  Danish  and  arithmetic.  In 
some  schools  the  practice  of  students  making  notes  of  lectures  heard 
iii  a  previous  hour  is  required  or  encouraged. 

No  examinations . — It  has  previously  been  stated  that  the  people's 
high  schools  have  no  examinations  either  at  the  beginning  or  end 
of  their  courses.  A  certificate  of  attendance  is  furnished  to  those 
who  desire  it,  but  no  grades  or  diploma  of  graduation  are  given. 
There  is  no  inducement  of  any  kind  to  cram.  Without  the  stress  of 
preparing  for  formal  knowledge  tests,  the  students  who  have  come 
from  plow  and  bench  are  permitted  to  live  their  life  quietly  during 
these  months  while  the  treasures  of  culture  are  being  opened  to  them 
and  they  are  getting  an  insight  into  the  wonderful  world  about  them. 
With  new  and  enlarged  vision  they  return  to  the  work  they  left. 

Aim  of  agricultural  schools. — Since  the  purpose  of  the  agricultural 
schools  is  vocational,  they  necessarily  differ  somewhat  from  the  peo- 
ple's high  schools.  The  difference  is  most  marked  in  the  case  of  aims 
and  curricula.  Naturally  the  agricultural  schools  aim  to  train  agri- 
culturalists. They  endeavor  to  equip  young  farmers  to  cultivate  their 
land  and  care  for  their  live  stock  more  intelligently  and  efficiently. 
The  same  service  is  performed  for  young  men  who  have  no  land  of 
their  own,  but  who  desire  to  assume  the  management  of  large  farms. 
Some  schools  have  as  their  sole  purpose  the  instruction  of  very 
small  farmers  in  the  conduct  of  their  limited  acres.  A  model  farm  is 
usually  conducted,  on  which  the  boys  spend  part  of  their  time  in 
actual  farm  work  with  a  view  to  learning  the  best  methods. 

Some  of  the  schools  also  maintain  courses  for  the  specific  purpose 
of  training  gardeners,  managers  of  creameries,  and  experts  to  be 
employed  by  the  "  societies  of  control."  Domestic-science  courses  in 
some  schools  aim  to  meet  the  vocational  demands  of  girls. 

While  the  leading  purpose  of  the  agricultural  schools  is  specifically 
vocational,  the  humanity  of  the  students  is  not  lost  to  view.    Along 


AIMS,  CURKICULA,  AND  METHODS.  127 

with  the  technical  instruction  the  schools  endeavor  to  exert  a  broadly 
cultural  influence  in  order  to  cultivate  in  the  young  man  or  woman 
an  appreciation  for  the  higher  values. 

Curricula  of  agricultural  schools. — Detailed  information  in  regard 
to  the  curricula  of  agricultural  schools  is  not  available.  In  broad  out- 
line their  work  is  indicated  by  the  subjoined  table/  which  states  the 
average  number  of  hours  devoted  to  the  various  subjects  in  five  and 
six  months'  courses,  respectively.  It  would  seem  that  the  six  months' 
course  is  more  pronouncedly  vocational  than  the  five  months'  course, 
for,  although  a  month  longer,  it  has  a  considerably  smaller  number 
of  hours  devoted  to  cultural  subjects.  This  fact  is  perhaps  explain- 
able by  the  very  circumstance  of  the  longer  term,  which  permits  of 
a  more  adequate  treatment  of  the  large  amount  of  technical  material. 
The  vocational  function  is  apparently  more  clearly  apprehended  and 
more  specifically  pursued  than  in  the  five  months'  course,  which  re- 
tains more  the  nature  of  a  general  people's  high  school.  The  place 
held  by  cultural  subjects  in  both  courses  is  significantly  large  and 
indicates  the  close  kinship  existing  between  the  agricultural  and  the 
people's  high  school. 

Table  22. — Curricula  jof  agricultural  scfiools,  1910-11, 


Subjects. 


Average  number  of 
hours  of  instruction. 


Five 

months' 
course. 


Six 
months' 
course. 


Sciences 

Plants  and  cereals 

Live  stock  and  dairying 

Other  agricultural  subjects . 
Cultural  subjects 


211 
159 
143 

97 
295 


237 
181 
176 
136 
251 


Methods  of  agricultural  schools. — Due  allowance  being  made  for 
the  difference  in  the  curricular  material,  the  agricultural  schools 
resemble  the  people's  high  schools  very  much  in  point  of  methods. 
Informal  lectures  constitute  the  chief  medium  of  instruction.  A 
difference  is  discernible,  however,  especially  in  the  teaching  of  the 
sciences.  In  these  individual  work  in  experimentation  is  carried  on. 
The  purpose  is  to  train  the  students  in  habits  of  observation  and  to 
familiarize  them  with  such  technical  terms  and  processes  as  are 
employed  in  scientific  agriculture,  rather  than  the  development  of 
technical  skill.  Thus  the  student  does  work  in  analysis  of  soils, 
fertilizers,  and  the  like,  not  with  a  view  to  testing  the  qualities  of 

1  Dan.  Stat.,  op.  dt.,  p.  47. 
3334°— 15 9 


128  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

these  materials  himself  when  he  goes  back  to  his  farm,  but  to  enable 
him  to  understand  the  results  of  such  analysis  and  testing  when 
performed  by  an  expert.  The  value  of  such  intelligence  to  the 
Danish  farmer  is  very  large.  Experimentation  in  methods  of  culti- 
vation and  rotation  of  crops  is  done  to  some  extent.  In  some  schools 
the  students  are  divided  into  sections  to  assist  in  the  work  on  the 
experimental  farm,  each  group  doing  a  different  kind  of  work  in 
rotation.  In  dairy  schools  experiments  are  made  with  different  kinds 
of  separators,  churns,  pasteurizing  and  cooling  plants,  and  the  like. 
Thus  each  specialized  function  of  the  schools  employs  to  some  extent 
the  distinctive  methods  best  suited  to  its  purpose. 

Alumni  reunions. — It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  usefulness  of 
these  people's  schools  in  the  lives  of  their  students  terminates  with 
the  close  of  the  term.  Once  the  student  has  come  in  touch  with  a 
school  there  is  established  a  permanent  bond  of  connection.  To 
keep  alive  and  stimulate  this  interest,  mutually  advantageous  to 
the  student  and  the  school,  there  is  held  by  most  schools  an  alumni 
reunion  each  year.  For  a  period  of  one  or  more  days  former  students 
come  back  to  renew  acquaintance  with  fellow  students  and  teachers, 
review  experiences,  recall  forgotten  events,  and  sing  the  old  songs 
together.  An  intellectual  treat  of  high  order  is  also  provided  for 
them,  to  instruct  and  stimulate.  These  social  and  intellectual  fea- 
tures make  the  alumni  reunion  a  red-letter  day  in  the  lives  of  many 
farmers'  sons  and  daughters. 

Autumn  meetings. — The  autumn  meeting  provides  another  means 
of  binding  former  students  and  the  people  of  the  community  to  the 
school.  These  autumn  meetings,  which  are  a  feature  of  nearly 
every  school,  extend  over  a  period  of  several  days,  and  in  many 
features  are  comparable  to  our  American  Chautauquas.  Upward  of 
1,500  former  students  and  friends,  almost  exclusively  from  the  agri- 
cultural classes,  attend.  The  varied  program  consists  of  lectures, 
discussions,  and  excursions  of  an  educational  nature,  under  the 
guidance  of  experienced  teachers,  all  adapted  to  the  needs  and  the 
interests  of  the  participants.  Naturally  the  social  features  of  these 
meetings  constitute  one  of  their  chief  attractions. 

Extension  work. — As  the  service  of  the  schools  is  not  limited  by 
time,  so  neither  is  it  by  distance.  From  every  people's  high  school 
the  forces  that  make  for  culture  flow  out  in  widening  circles.  By 
the  production  of  books  ably  and  popularly  written,  by  large  con- 
tributions to  newspapers  and  magazines,  and  by  frequent  lectures 
in  the  village  societies  the  teachers  in  the  people's  schools  are  exert- 
ing an  influence  for  enlightenment,  economic  efficiency,  culture,  and 
morality,  throughout  Denmark. 


INFLUENCE  AND  RESULTS.  129 

Chapter  X. 

INFLUENCE  AND  RESULTS. 

Estimate  difjiGult. — What  are  the  results  of  the  operation  of  these 
unique  educational  agencies?  Extravagant  statements  regarding 
the  beneficent  results  of  the  people's  high-school  movement  have 
undoubtedly  been  made  by  uncritical  enthusiasts.  Unfriendly 
critics,  on  the  other  hand,  have  unduly  minimized  the  significance 
of  the  schools.  The  truth  lies  somewhere  between  these  extremes. 
Well-informed  Danes  and  the  many  foreign  students  of  the  schools 
agree  in  assigning  to  the  people's  high-school  movement  a  remark- 
able influence.  The  difficulty  and  complexity  of  the  problem  of 
tracing  out  these  influences  and  results  are  very  great,  and  the 
foreign  investigator  can  not  hope  to  succeed  fully.  He  must  con- 
tent himself  with  pointing  out  certain  facts  and  conditions  which 
give  evidence  of  sustaining  an  appreciable  relation  to  this  educa- 
tional movement. 

Cultural  results:  Lecturing  societies. — Since  culture  is  the  avowed 
purpose  of  the  people's  high  schools,  it  is  pertinent  to  inquire  as  to 
results  in  this  particular.  As  a  direct  outcome  of  the  high-school 
movement  there  have  been  established  in  practically  every  village 
and  town  the  so-called  lecturing  societies.  These  are  local  organiza- 
tions meeting  about  once  a  month  with  a  program  of  literary  or 
social  nature.  Sometimes  a  lecturer  from  the  outside  is  engaged, 
and  for  this  purpose  high-school  teachers  are  in  great  demand.  At 
other  times  the  program  is  made  up  of  local  talent,  papers  being  read 
or  debates  engaged  in.  Men  and  women  who  have  been  away  to 
high  school  naturally  take  the  lead  in  these  matters. 

These  lectures  and  debates  are  most  eagerly  attended  by  all  the  people  in 
the  neighborhood,  some  men  and  women  often  walking  4  or  5  miles  in  order 
to  hear  the  lectures  or  join  in  the  debates.  The  result  of  this  form  of  social 
intercourse  is  that  the  oldest  inhabitant  feels  that  he  has  by  no  means  finished 
his  education.  To  give  an  example  of  the  subjects  chosen  for  these  lectures: 
An  eclipse  of  the  moon  was  shortly  to  take  place,  and  it  is  highly  probable 
that  a  vast  number  of  lectures  were  given  in  the  villages  on  astronomy,  ex- 
plaining the  reasons  for  these  natural  phenomena.  Any  subject  which  may 
be  the  means  of  raising  higher  ideals  and  thoughts  on  higher  objects  than  the 
mere  means  whereby  wealth  may  be  produced  is  chosen,  and  thus  the  subjects 
are  mostly  of  a  general  nature,  but  at  the  same  time  giving  food  for  thought 
and  tending  toward  the  higher  and  healthier  cultivation  of  mind  and  body.* 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  Denmark  1,000  such  societies,  with 
an  average  of  10  meetings  a  year,  and  100  people  in  attendance  at 
each  meeting.    The  product  of  these  figures  is  1,000,000,  which  num- 

1  Report  of  a  Deputation  Sent  from  Ireland,  1903,  p.  133. 


130  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

ber  gives  some  idea  of  the  cultural  influence  exerted  by  these  in- 
stitutions. 

Another  form  of  cultural  activity  is  carried  on  in  some  of  the 
high-school  homes.  These  are  modest  hotels  in  the  larger  towns, 
where  high-school  men  and  women  may  meet  and  carry  on  work  of 
a  high-school  character. 

High  intelligence. — The  direct  and  indirect  influences  of  the  peo- 
ple's high  schools  have  contributed  to  produce  a  general  intelligence 
of  a  very  high  order.  The  Norwegian  poet,  Bjornson,  describes  the 
Danish  rural  population  as  "the  most  enlightened  peasantry  in  the 
world."  This  superlative  estimate  is,  of  course,  difficult  of  demon- 
stration, but  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  the  Danes  oc- 
cupy a  very  high  position  on  the  cultural  ladder. 

There  is  in  the  first  place  the  Danish  antipathy  toward  ignorance. 
This  is  the  one  thing  that  a  Dane  is  ashamed  of.  The  tradition  of 
education  is  strong  and  of  long  standing.  Sometimes  the  school 
opportunities  during  childhood  years  have  been  meager.  But  with 
all  the  more  zest,  men  and  women  seem  to  seize  upon  every  oppor- 
tunity for  extending  their  knowledge,  by  a  course  at  school,  hearing 
lectures,  or  by  home  reading. 

A  nation  of  readers. — The  Danes  are  voracious  readers.  In 
1910-11  there  were  published  in  Denmark  261  newspapers  and  1,187 
magazines,^  and  this  in  a  country  with  a  population  of  about  two 
and  a  half  millions. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that,  although  the  Danish  newspaper  is  of  small  size 
and  not  always  a  very  attractive  print  in  the  eyes  of  a  foreigner,  a  far  larger 
number  of  copies  proportionally  are  in  circulation  than  in  any  other  com- 
munity in  the  world.  It  may  truthfully  be  said  that  scarcely  a  home  may  be 
found  in  all  Denmark  which  does  not  subscribe  to  at  least  one  daily  newspaper, 
and  in  many  cases  to  several,  not  to  mention  the  large  number  of  weeklies 
specially  edited  for  the  peasantry,  which  are  to  be  found  everywhere.  The 
price  of  the  Danish  newspaper  is  nominal,  rarely  exceeding  5  ore,  and  even 
very  small  towns  and  every  borough  town  in  the  country  issues  two  or  more  of 
these  papers.  The  illustrated  journals  published  every  week  have  in  some 
cases  close  upon  100,000  subscribers.' 

Love  of  hoohs. — Newspapers  and  magazines  do  not  constitute  the 
only  mental  food  of  the  Danes,  however.  Their  love  of  books  war- 
ranted the  publication,  in  1910-11,  of  3,485  separate  titles,  and  31,335 
brochures.^  The  prevalence  of  libraries  is  indicated  by  the  following 
table :» 

1  Statistik  Aarbog,  1912,  Table  128. 

"Report  of  a  Deputation  Sent  from  Ireland,  1903,  p.  113. 

•  Statistik  Aarbog,  1912,  Table  129. 


rBTFLUENCB  AND  EESITLTS. 
Table  23. — State-aided  libraries  in  DenmarTc,  1910-11, 


131 


Libraries. 

Rural. 

City 

Total. 

Publlclibraries: 

655 
305,000 
564,000 

554 

57,000 

368,000 

361 
10,000 

50 
122,000 
394,000 

91 
39,000 
337,000 

95 
17,000 

705 

427, 000 

Lo&ns            ....'..................................  .................. 

958,000 

School  libraries: 

645 

Volumes 

96,000 

705,000 

Teachers'  libraries: 

Number 

456 

Volumes 

27,000 

It  is  significant  to  bear  in  mind,  in  a  comparison  of  libraries  in 
city  and  rural  communities,  that  the  city  population  of  Denmark 
now  constitutes  40  per  cent.  To  students  familiar  with  the  cultural 
conditions  of  rural  communities  in  some  other  countries  the  facts  of 
the  above  table  regarding  rural  Denmark  must  prove  a  revelation, 
indeed. 

In  addition  to  these  public  library  facilities  practically  every  home 
has  a  well-selected  library  of  standard  authors,  and  the  books  serve 
not  merely  as  ornaments;  they  are  read.  In  1884  there  was  organ- 
ized a  committee  for  the  publication  of  cheap  and  instructive  books 
of  moderate  size.  Among  other  achievements  the  committee  has  pub- 
lished thousands  of  pamphlets  on  scientific  subjects,  popularly  pre- 
sented, at  an  average  price  of  2J  cents  a  copy.  These  books  have 
been  of  immense  importance  in  spreading  general  intelligence  among 
the  working  and  agricultural  classes  in  the  country.^ 

Love  of  art. — Love  for  and  appreciation  of  art  are  also  marked 
characteristics  of  the  Danes.  Excursions  under  capable  guidance  are 
frequently  made  to  the  cities  to  visit  museums  and  other  places  of 
interest.  Even  in  the  humblest  homes  one  is  surprised  at  the  refined 
taste  shown  in  the  selection  of  decorative  materials.  The  influence 
of  the  people's  high  schools  in  the  development  of  this  cultural  trait 
also  deserves  to  be  taken  into  account. 

Economic  results. — Since  material  prosperity  is  so  essential  to  the 
happiness  of  a  people,  it  is  proper  to  inquire  into  the  effect  of  the 
people's  high  schools  upon  economic  conditions.  As  is  generally 
known,  the  economic  rise  of  Denmark  during  the  nineteenth  century 
was  remarkable.  Low  lands  were  drained,  heath  lands  reclaimed, 
and  the  production  of  butter,  beef,  bacon,  eggs,  sugar,  roots,  and 
grains  moved  forward  with  giant  strides.^  As  a  result  Denmark  rose 
from  a  condition  of  national  bankruptcy  in  the  beginning  of  the 
century  to  the  position  of  second  place  in  per  capita  wealth  in 
Europe,  according  to  the  estimate  of  the  statistical  expert,  Mr.  Mul- 
hall.« 

1  Report  of  a  Deputation  Sent  from  Ireland,  1903,  p.  114. 

a  See  tables  iu  Appendix,  pp.  299-301. 

«  Smith,  The  Best  Methods  of  Organization  for  Agricultural  Cooperation  and  Credit,  p.  9. 


132  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

This  remarkable  advance  in  economic  prosperity  seems  attributable 
to  three  causes — peasant  proprietorship  of  land,  the  universal  system 
of  cooperation  in  vogue,  and  the  popular  system  of  education. 

Peasant  proprietorship. — The  subject  of  peasant  proprietorship, 
which  is  very  interesting  in  itself,  concerns  us  here  only  in  so  far  as 
it  is  bound  up  with  education  and  cooperation  in  the  explanation  of 
the  country's  prosperity.  Before  1792  the  land  in  Denmark  was  held 
principally  by  a  few  large  proprietors.  To  these  the  peasants  were 
subject  as  tenants,  and  their  condition  was  not  much  better  than  that 
of  the  serfs  in  Russia  at  a  later  day.  Industrial  depression  and  gen- 
eral discontent  prevailed  throughout  the  country.  Agitation  for 
peasant  proprietorship  was  begun,  and  the  land  was  gradually  trans- 
ferred from  the  large  landowners  to  the  peasants  themselves.  The 
process  moved  very  slowly,  however,  until  1851,  when  a  great  stimu- 
lus to  the  desire  for  ownership  was  given  by  the  establishment  of 
State-controlled  companies  that  offered  long-time  loans  secured  by 
mortgages  on  the  land  to  be  transferred.  Mortgages  were  taken  up 
to  50  and  60  per  cent  of  the  purchase  price  of  the  land,  and  the  time 
of  payment  ranged  from  50  to  100  years.  Under  this  system  the 
transfer  of  lands  went  on  rapidly. 

Rates  of  interest  were  rather  high,  however,  and  the  annual  pay- 
ments constituted  a  heavy  drain  upon  the  farmers.  A  betterment 
took  place  in  the  latter  part  of  tlje  last  and  the  beginning  of  this 
century  by  the  organization  of  cooperative  credit  associations. 
Through  these  agencies  long-time  loans  may  now  be  had  at  4  per 
cent.  If  a  prospective  buyer  has  one-tenth  the  purchase  price  of  a 
parcel  of  land,  he  can  borrow  the  other  nine-tenths  on  that  margin 
of  security.  The  annual  payments  of  4  per  cent  are  sufficient  not 
only  for  the  payment  of  the  interest,  but  also  for  a  sinking  fund, 
which  repays  the  principal  of  the  debt  in  50  years'  time.^  These 
methods  have  accelerated  the  transition  from  tenancy  to  proprietor- 
ship until  at  the  present  time  about  90  per  cent  of  the  occupiers  of 
land  are  proprietors. 

Peasant  proprietorship  has  stimulated  the  self-respect  of  the  Dan- 
ish peasants  and  has  presented  a  favorable  field  for  the  work  of  the 
people's  high  schools.  Growth  of  intelligence  again  stimulated 
others  to  become  proprietors  instead  of  tenants,  and  thus  the  two 
factors  have  gone  hand  in  hand. 

System  of  cooperation. — Peasant  proprietorship  could  not  have 
succeeded  so  well,  nor  become  so  general,  however,  without  the  re- 
markable system  of  cooperation  which  has  sprung  up.  This  move- 
ment, too,  it  will  appear,  is  bound  up  with  the  people's  high  schools. 

1  Sinclair,  Report  of  Wisconsin  State  Board  of  Public  Affairs  on  Agricultural  Coopera- 
tion, p.  11. 


INFLUENCE  AND  EESULTS. 


133 


The  Danish  system  of  cooperation  is  indeed  a  marvel  of  efficient  or- 
ganization. It  has  become  the  object  of  study  and  the  pattern  for 
imitation  by  agricultural  communities  throughout  the  world.  The 
Danish  farmers  raise  their  crops,  select,  buy,  and  feed  their  stock, 
prepare  and  market  their  products,  buy  their  supplies,  and  supply 
their  own  means  of  credit  all  by  the  aid  of  cooperation. 

The  movement  began  in  1882  with  the  establishment  of  a  co- 
operative creamery.  The  idea  took  root  at  once  and  grew  until, 
in  1912,  there  were  1,177  cooperative  creameries,  handling  prac- 
tically all  the  milk  in  the  country.  The  movement  has  spread  also 
to  other  lines  of  activity,  until  to-day  there  is  scarcely  a  field  that 
has  net  been  entered  by  cooperative  organization.  Some  idea  of  the 
extent  to  which  cooperation  has  been  developed  may  be  derived  from 
the  following  figures  for  1912 :  ^ 

Table  24 — Cooperative  societies  in  Denmarlc,  1912. 


Societies. 


Number. 


Members. 


A  gri-^ult ural  so^iotios 

Socii'tifts  of  renters  and  small  farmers 

S(x-ictles  for  purchase  ani  sale  of  agricultural  produce,  1903 

Societies  for  the  breeding  of  horses 

Sof-isties  for  the  breeding  of  cattle 

Societies  for  the  breeding  of  swine 

Societies  for  the  breeding  of  sheep 

Societies  of  control  for  the  oversight  of  dairy  herds 

Cooperal  ive  creameries 

Cooperative  bacon  factories 

Farmers  loan  societies  or  credit  banks,  1900 


Ho 
820 
640 
280 

1/45 
238 
104 
521 

1,177 
39 
147 


89,800 
45,000 
46,000 


In  addition  to  the  above  there  are  cooperative  societies  for  horti- 
culture, seed  growing,  poultry  farming,  beekeeping,  sugar-beet  farm- 
ing, sugar  manufacture,  fisheries,  forestation,  reclamation  of  heath 
lands,  insurance,  pensions,  lectures  on  agricultural  economics,  and 
so  on  almost  without  limit. 

In  many  of  these  lines  of  activity  the  local  societies  are  federated 
into  one  organization  for  the  district  or  county,  and  these  organiza- 
tions elect  representatives  to  a  board  for  the  entire  country.  By 
these  various  steps  all  the  individuals  are  organized  under  one  central 
administration,  usually  with  headquarters  at  Copenhagen.  The 
Royal  Danish  Agricultural  Society  is  a  union  and  a  clearing  house 
for  all  cooperative  associations  connected  with  agriculture  in  the 
country. 

Nearly  all  these  cooperative  organizations  receive  aid  from  the 
State.  The  usual  procedure  is  for  the  State  to  make  the  appropria- 
tion to  the  central  board.  This  body  apportions  the  funds  to  the 
various  district  or  county  organizations,  which  in  turn  apply  the 
funds  available  to  the  several  societies  in  such  a  manner  as  best  to 


1  Larsen,    Landokonomisk   Aarbog,   1912. 


134  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

serve  the  purpose  intended  by  the  State.  In  this  way  the  State  may 
easily  and  intelligently  reach  with  expert  advice  and  material  support 
any  particular  line  of  activity  that  seems  to  be  in  need  of  develop- 
ment. 

Advantages  from  cooperation. — By  this  universal  application  of 
the  principle  of  cooperation  to  agriculture  in  all  its  phases  there 
have  been  derived,  according  to  the  estimate  of  Mr.  Dymond,  an 
English  investigator,  the  following  advantages:  (1)  Yield  has  been 
increased,  (2)  quality  has  been  improved,  (3)  cost  of  production  has 
been  lessened,  and  (4)  better  prices  have  been  obtained.^  The 
phenomenal  economic  rise  of  the  country,  which  is  due  so  largely  to 
agriculture,  would  seem  to  give  weight  to  this  estimate.  In  the 
matter  of  marketing  alone  the  small  farmers,  who  are  very  numerous 
in  Denmark,  have  been  very  materially  aided.  Ey  the  help  of 
cooperation  they  have  been  enabled  to  dispose  of  their  products  on 
terms  equally  good  with  those  of  the  large  farmers.  The  result  of 
the  various  fpctors  working  together  is  indicated  by  very  tangible 
evidence  in  that  the  exports  of  the  three  chief  products — butter, 
bacon,  and  eggs — increased  fivefold  in  value  in  20  years.^ 

Economic  contribution  of  peopWa  high  schools. — The  question  is 
now  pertinent.  What  relation  do  the  people's  high  schools  sustain  to 
these  cooperative  and  economic  movements?  The  thoughtful  reader 
will  ere  this  have  formed  an  opinion  of  his  own  as  to  the  degree  of 
intelligence  that  must  exist  among  the  farmers  to  make  such  co- 
operation possible.  It  requires  no  small  amount  of  intelligence  on 
the  part  of  the  people  to  see  the  advantage  of  all  these  various  forms 
of  cooperation,  to  grasp,  for  instance,  the  fact  that  good  marketing, 
which  involves  a  consideration  of  the  conditions  in  other  countries, 
is  as  much  a  part  of  good  farming  as  the  production  of  the  crops. 
A  broad  outlook,  too,  is  required  to  appreciate  the  truth  that  the 
interests  of  the  group  are  the  interests  of  the  individual,  and  vice 
versa.  Furthermore,  the  many  duties  which  devolve  upon  committee 
members  and  managers  of  all  these  cooperative  organizations  also 
make  large  demands  upon  the  intelligence. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  entire 
rural  population  attend  these  people's  high  schools  at  some  time  in 
their  lives,  and  these  are  virtually  the  only  schools  above  the  ele- 
mentary schools  that  are  open  to  the  farming  class.  It  seems,  there- 
fore, almost  a  truism  to  say  that  the  people's  high  schools  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  that  high  intelligence  and  that  broad  sympathy 
among  the  rural  population  which  makes  successful  cooperation 
possible.  The  people's  high  schools  are  described  as  "  hotbeds  "  of 
the  cooperative  movement.     It  thrives  best  in  their  soil.     Statistics 

»  Quoted  by  Thornton  In  Schools  Public  and  Private  in  the  North  of  Europe,  p.  125. 
«  See  tables  in  appendix,  pp.  299-301. 


INFLTJENCE   AND  EESULTS.  135 

show  that  more  than  one-half  of  all  members  of  committees  in  co- 
operative societies  and  nine-tenths  of  all  the  managers  of  cooperative 
creameries  are  former  high-school  men.^ 

Production  of  a  particular  type  of  mind. — The  attitude  of  the 
Danish  farmers  to  the  cooperative  movement  is  only  a  particular 
manifestation  of  the  type  of  mind  which  the  people's  high  schools 
have  produced  among  the  rural  population.  It  is  to  this  background 
of  broad  intelligence  and  intense  patriotism  that  we  must  direct  our 
attention  if  we  would  even  partially  understand  the  economic  rise  of 
Denmark. 

The  high  state  of  perfection  of  Danish  agriculture  would  naturally 
lead  one  to  think  that  its  excellence  is  due  to  the  vocational  instruc- 
tion in  agricultural  schools.  While  the  work  done  in  these  schools 
in  Denmark  is  of  a  high  order,  yet  no  one  will  contend  that  in  this 
respect  Denmark  is  superior  to  some  other  countries  in  Europe,  such 
as  Germany  or  Hungary.  Furthermore,  the  agricultural  schools  are 
attended  by  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  farmers.  The  ex- 
planation of  Danish  agricultural  excellence  is  not  to  be  found  so 
much  in  the  possession  of  expert  intelligence  by  the  farmers  them- 
selves, but  rather  in  a  condition  of  mind  that  is  capable  of  receiving 
and  profiting  by  expert  intelligence  contributed  by  specialists. 
Clearly  but  a  small  proportion  of  farmers  in  any  community  can  be- 
come school-trained  agricultural  experts,  but  it  is  possible  to  have  a 
body  of  farmers  capable  of  being  guided  b}^  experts.  The  production 
of  an  agricultural  population  that  reads  and  possesses  a  mind  open 
to  receive  new  ideas,  a  willingness  to  listen  to  expert  advice,  a  spirit 
of  enterprise  that  is  not  afraid  of  making  new  adjustments,  and  a 
patriotism  that  is  vitally  concerned  about  the  nation's  prestige — this 
is  the  great  economic  contribution  of  the  people's  high  schools. 

Reading  hahit. — That  the  Danish  rural  people  are  a  reading  popu- 
lation is  attested  by  the  fact  that  no  fewer  than  53  journals  ?.nd 
papers  relating  to  agriculture  and  allied  interests  are  required  to 
supply  the  demand.^  This  takes  no  account  of  the  general  news- 
papers and  journals,  the  wide  circulation  of  which  has  previously 
been  mentioned. 

Open  minds. — And  not  only  do  these  people  read,  but  their  minds 
are  open  to  receive  new  ideas,  whether  from  at  home  or  abroad. 
This  trait  is  cultivated  by  the  high  schools.  The  young  men  and 
women  are  trained  to  look  everywhere  for  good  ideas,  not  to  absorb 
them  uncritically,  but  to  observe  and  to  choose.  One  high  school 
maintains  a  department  styled  "A  window  to  the  West,"  an  evi- 
dence of  a  desire  to  let  in  light  from  England  and  America. 

1  Thornton,  in  Educational  Times,  November,  1905. 
*  Landokonomisk  Aarbog,  1912,  p.  120. 


136  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

Respect  for  the  Expert;  societies  of  Kontrol. — ^^A  peeuliarly  sig- 
nificant result  of  this  openness  of  mind  is  the  willingness  of  the 
farming  class  to  profit  by  the  aid  of  experts.  This  respect  for  the 
expert  is  admirably  illustrated  by  the  success  of  societies  of  Kontrol^ 
that  have  been  established  in  every  corner  of  the  land,  for  the  over- 
sight of  dairy  herds.  The  writer  can  not  do  better  than  quote  here 
the  description  of  the  operation  of  these  societies  as  given  in  the  re- 
port of  a  deputation  from  Ireland : 

The  system,  briefly,  is  as  follows:  The  farmers  of  a  district  form  a  society 
on  cooperative  lines  for  the  purpose  of  Kontrol,  and  about  1,000  cows  in  a  so- 
ciety would  be  sufficient  for  one  inspector,  to  be  appointed  by  the  Royal  Danish 
Society,  to  take  charge  of  the  local  society.  His  duties  would  be  as  follows: 
He  keeps  a  set  of  books  of  each  farm  in  duplicate,  one  set  being  retained  by  the 
farmer.  He  makes  an  inspection  of  each  farm  in  the  society  about  once  every 
18  days,  and  there  enters  fully  all  particulars  relating  to  the  farm  since  his 
last  visit.  Some  of  those  particulars  consist  of  the  following  examples:  The 
total  amount  of  milk  from  each  cow  since  his  visit  (the  milk  is  regularly 
weighed  and  entered  in  a  rough  book  by  the  farmer)  ;  the  percentage  of  fat 
contained  in  the  milk  (samples  kept  by  the  farmer)  ;  the  calculation  of  butter 
produced  from  the  milk;  the  amount  of  food  required  per  cow  (each  cow  on  its 
merits)  ;  the  amount  of  butter  produced  in  relation  to  the  amount  of  food  con- 
sumed; the  total  amount  of  milk,  in  pounds  per  annum,  of  each  cow,  and  date 
of  calving.  He  advises  as  to  manures,  change  of  crops,  if  thought  desirable 
to  deviate  from  the  formula;  to  which  bull  the  cows  should  be  taken;  to  which 
boar  the  sows  should  go.  If  a  farmer  is  in  possession  of  a  cow  which  does  not 
produce  good  milk,  the  inspector  advises  that  she  should  be  sold,  and  that  she 
should  not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes.  The  farmers,  when  questioned  as 
to  whether  this  advice  was  generally  accepted,  were  unanimous  in  saying  that 
they  undoubtedly  preferred  to  retain  only  those  cows  which  were  worth  keep- 
ing— from  a  breeding  and  milk-producing  point  of  view — even  though  they  had 
to  dispose  of  those  at  a  loss  which  were  not  up  to  the  standard. 

The  accounts  are  also  made  up  for  the  farmer  in  every  item,  so  that  he  has 
an  exact  knowledge  of  his  position.  The  charge  for  this  work  varies  according 
to  each  society,  but  the  minimum  is  1  krone,  the  maximum  2  kroner  per  cow 
per  annum.  This  money  goes  toward  the  payment  of  the  salary  of  the  Kon- 
troller,  which  is  supplemented  by  State  aid. 

The  value  to  the  farmer  of  this  form  of  Kontrol  is  enormous,  as  by  joining  a 
Kontrol  society  he  is  able  to  possess  an  exact  knowledge  of  his  economic  posi- 
tion. It  might  be  urged  that  this  form  of  assistance,  viz,  account  keeping,  etc., 
would  tend  to  make  the  farmer  rely  less  on  himself,  but  use  the  society  as  a 
leaning  prop;  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  case.  The  man  is  in  better  com- 
mand of  his  position  when  he  knows  how  he  stands,  and  the  visits  of  this 
expert  do  for  the  farmers  what  the  auditor  does  for  the  business  man.  The 
farmer,  in  short,  by  means  of  his  society  obtains  at  small  cost  the  benefit  of  an 
expert  audit  of  the  business  of  his  own  farm. 

On  farms  where  cows  are  carefully  bred  and  great  attention  paid  to  every 
detail  in  their  breeding,  it  is  usual  to  have  a  tablet  at  the  head  of  the  stall  of 
each,  giving  the  name;  date  calved;  sire  and  dam,  names  and  numbers;  total 
milk  production  for  the  previous  year;  date  when  she  calved;  date  of  expected 
calf  and  name  and  number  of  its  sire.  In  this  way  visitors  to  the  farms  see 
at  a  glance  the  performance  of  the  cow  and  also  her  breeding.  It  is  to  estab- 
lishments of  this  kind  that  farmers  desirous  of  improving  their  stock  turn 


rNTLTJEKCE  AND  REStTLTS.  137 

when  in  search  of  a  good  cow  or  bull,  and  often  the  option  is  given  on  calves 
before  they  are  born,  such  is  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  farmers  to  have  t> 
really  good  class  of  animals  in  general  on  their  farms/ 

The  value  of  the  instruction  and  assistance  of  these  peripatetic 
agricultural  and  dairy  experts  is  so  great  that  their  services  are  by 
some  investigators  regarded  as  explaining  in  a  large  measure  the 
economic  prosperity  of  the  country.  That  is  a  superficial  estimate 
of  their  influence,  however,  which  does  not  take  into  account  the 
unusually  high  intelligence  and  openness  of  mind  of  the  rural  popu- 
lation which  the  people's  high  schools  have  produced. 

One  might  suppose  that  the  "  little  learning  "  the  farm  boys  get  in 
tl^  comparatively  short  high-school  courses  would  be  "  a  dangerous 
thing."  But  so  far  from  making  the  boys  satisfied  with  their  attain- 
ments the  high-school  teachers  have  a  wonderful  way  of  instilling 
into  their  minds  a  spirit  of  modesty.  They  learn  to  see  that  the  little 
they  know  is  but  an  infinitesimal  part  of  the  totality  of  knowledge. 
The  idea  of  finality  is  kept  very  far  away  from  them.  The  value  of 
specialization  is  emphasized.  They  are  taught  that  no  single  indi- 
vidual can  become  master  in  many  fields,  not  even  in  the  various 
branches  of  agriculture.  Therefore,  if  the  ordinary  man  shall  prosper, 
he  must  accept  the  aid  of  experts  in  matters  where  his  knowledge  is 
deficient.  There  is  as  a  result  a  marked  contrast  between  the  spirit 
displayed  by  these  Danish  farmers  and  the  disdain  with  which  scien- 
tific methods  and  "  the  professor  from  the  agricultural  college  "  are 
so  frequently  mentioned  by  the  farming  laity  in  this  country.  A 
group  of  people  have  really  advanced  very  far  when  they  have  come 
to  the  point  where  they  are  willing  to  discredit  their  own  knowledge 
in  a  field  where  they  are  not  specialists  and  are  eager  to  listen  to  the 
advice  of  experts.  In  cultivating  modesty  among  the  rural  popu- 
lation as  to  their  own  knowledge  and  in  teaching  them  the  superior 
value  of  scientific  methods  and  the  advice  of  trained  experts,  the 
Danish  people's  high  schools  have  rendered  a  service  that  sustains  a 
decidedly  important  relation  to  the  economic  prosperity  of  the 
country. 

In  passing,  mention  may  be  made  of  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
agricultural  and  dairy  experts  have  themselves  been  students  in  the 
people's  high  schools.  They  have  thus  been  affected  by  the  spirit  of 
these  institutions  and  are  therefore  in  harmony  with  the  movement 
for  a  people's  culture  both  for  its  own  value  and  as  a  basis  for  eco- 
nomic elT'ciency. 

Capacity  for  making  adjustments. — Another  large  service  of  edu- 
cation to  economics  is  that  which  has  made  possible  the  wonderfully 
rapid  adjustments  that  Danish  agriculturists  have  made  in  periods 
of  crisis.     When,  in  the  seventies,  the  Danish  lands  were  depleted 

1  Report  of  a  Deputation  from  Ireland,  1903,  pp.  130-131. 


138 


THE  BANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


by  long-continued  grain  farming  and  the  price  of  grain  fell  to  a  low 
figure,  the  Danish  farmers  found  themselves  in  distress.  Some 
change  had  to  be  made  in  their  methods.  Economists  and  agricul- 
turists combined  their  efforts  at  a  solution  and  reached  the  con- 
clusion that  instead  of  selling  grain,  Denmark  should  buy  it,  feed  it 
to  her  dairy  herds  and  live  stock,  and  sell  the  products  of  this  altered 
form  of  agricultural  production.  The  word  was  passed  along  to 
the  farmers  by  their  advisers.  A  campaign  of  education  was  set  on 
foot,  and  in  a  few  years'  time  the  economic  policy  of  the  country  in 
the  matter  of  grain  shipments  was  completely  reversed.  One  phase 
of  the  change  is  represented  by  the  following  table.^ 

Table  25. — Shipments  of  grain  in  Denmark — Average  per  year. 


Years. 

Excess  of 
exports 

over 
imports. 

Years. 

Excess  of 
imports 

over 
exports. 

1800                     

Million 

pounds. 

68 

153 

273 

608 

246 

48 

1885  to  1889 

Minion 
pounds. 
221 

1820  to  1824 

1890  to  1894 

439 

1840  to  1844    

1895  to  1900.  .„ 

1.128 

1870  to  1874 

1875  to  1879 

1880  to  1884 

As  the  table  shows,  the  excess  of  exports  over  imports  of  grain 
fell  from  over  five  hundred  million  pounds  in  1870  to  zero  in  about  20 
years'  time.  Then  imports  began  to  exceed  exports  until,  in  20  years 
more,  Denmark  was  buying  grain  in  such  quantities  that  the  excess 
of  imports  over  exports  was  more  than  twice  the  greatest  amount  of 
the  former  excess  of  exports  over  imports.  This  change  in  economic 
policy  was  accompanied  by  a  wonderful  transformation  of  the  agri- 
cultural industries.  The  change  is  generally  spoken  of  as  a  shift 
from  grain  farming  to  dairying  and  cattle  raising.  A  more  correct 
description  is  to  say  that  it  was  a  development  and  extension  of  the 
dairy  and  other  industries  in  addition  to  grain  production.  For 
while  the  exports  of  butter  rose  by  leaps  and  bounds,  the  surprising 
fact  remains  that  the  amount  of  grain  produced  has  not  decreased, 
nor  merely  held  its  own,  but  has  actually  increased,  as  the  appended 
table  indicates.^ 

Table  26. — Size  of  grain  crop  in  Denmark — Average  per  year. 

Barrels. 

ISOO— 4.  500,  000 

1845 11.  000.  000 

1S05    to   1S68 18,  200.  000 

1875   to   1878 18,982.000 

1885   to   1888 21,620.000 

1805   to   1S9S 23,371,000 

iDen   Landbohistoriske  Udstilling,   1900,  p.  30. 
'Idem,  p.  27. 


INFLUENCE  AND  RESULTS.  139 

Rise  of  cooperative  creameries. — Thus  did  the  Danish  farmers 
meet  and  solve  their  first  great  crisis.  Another  was  encountered  in 
the  eighties.  England  was  the  chief  consumer  of  Danish  butter,  and 
it  soon  appeared  that  if  the  product  was  to  be  sold  advantageously 
in  England  it  must  be  presented  in  a  more  uniform  way  and  in 
larger  quantities  under  the  same  trade-mark.  Then  arose  as  if  by 
magic  the  cooperative  creameries.  These  receive  the  milk  from  an 
entire  neighborhood,  remove  the  cream  by  the  centrifugal  separators, 
and  manufacture  it  into  butter  of  a  uniformly  high  grade.  By  these 
adjustments  and  improved  methods  the  excess  exports  of  butter  rose 
from  eight  million  pounds  in  the  late  sixties  to  ninety-eight  millions 
at  the  end  of  the  century,  an  increase  of  more  than  twelvefold.^ 

Rise  of  hacon  factories. — Other  crises  have  been  met  and  solved. 
In  the  eighties  high-tariff  legislation  in  Germany  made  that  country 
a  less  favorable  market,  and  Denmark  was  forced  to  look  elsewhere 
for  a  better  market  for  her  live  stock.  England  was  accessible,  but 
the  transportation  of  live  stock  across  the  channel  was  difficult. 
For  instance,  in  1887  swine  fever  caused  the  export  of  swine  to  fall 
from  232,000  to  16,000.^ 

This  crisis  was  met  by  the  establishment  of  cooperative  and  private 
bacon-curing  factories,  which  now  dot  the  land  to  the  number  of  61. 
As  a  result  the  exportation  of  live  swine  has  been  almost  abandoned, 
while  the  excess  exports  of  the  bacon  factories  rose  in  20  j^ears  from 
twelve  million  pounds  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions,  an 
increase  of  more  than  tenfold.  In  the  same  period  of  time  the  value 
of  the  excess  exports  of  eggs  rose  from  2,000,000  kroner  to  11,000,000, 
an  increase  of  more  than  fivefold.^ 

After  making  due  allowance  for  wise  leadership,  the  rapidity  and 
skill  with  which  these  adjustments  were  made  are  very  largely  at- 
tributable to  the  work  of  the  people's  high  schools.  By  the  agency 
of  these  institutions  there  had  been  prepared  a  sufficient  body  of 
young  men  who,  unhampered  by  tradition,  were  able  to  grasp  the 
value  of  the  new  ideas  and  quickly  prepare  themselves  for  responsi- 
ble positions  as  managers  and  leaders  of  the  new  activities.* 

Concern  for  national  prestige. — There  is  still  another  result  of  the 
work  of  the  people's  high  schools  that  has  an  economic  bearing.  It  is 
the  development  of  an  intense  patriotism.  By  their  large  emphasis 
upon  Danish  history,  song,  language,  literature,  and  ideals  the  peo- 
ple's high  schools  have  stimulated  a  deep  love  of  country  which  can 
not  bear  to  see  Denmark  fall  behind  in  the  race  of  the  nations  in 
those  lines  of  activity  in  which  she  is  in  any  way  qualified  to  com- 

lOp.  cit,  p.  30. 

«  Smith,  The  Best  Methods  of  Organization  for  Agricultural  Cooperation  and  Credit, 
p.  10. 

«  Den  Landbohistoriske  TJdstllling,  pp.  28  and  31. 

*  Paulsen,  A  Lecture  Delivered  in  Oxford,  1894,  p.  15. 


140  THE  DANISH   people's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

pete.  Looking  back  with  grief  at  her  national  disasters,  her  people 
realized  that  she  could  not  compete  upon  the  international  arena  of 
diplomacy  or  war.  But  though  by  reason  of  its  small  extent  the 
country  must  hold  a  subordinate  place  in  these  and  some  other  re- 
spects, her  leaders  saw  that  the  nation  could  take  high  rank  in  other 
lines  by  developing  herself  internall}''.  Even  though  she  could  not 
build  many  battleships,  she  could  produce  butter,  bacon,  and  eggs  of 
a  quality  unsurpassed.  And  this  sort  of  constructive  development 
is  clearly  calculated  to  produce  a  higher  state  of  national  happiness 
than  the  efforts  expended  on  instruments  of  destruction.  Thus, 
though  a  small  nation,  the  beloved  fatherland  could  still  be  wealthy 
and  happy  and  strong. 

This  is  the  doctrine  that  has  been  inculcated  in  the  people's  high 
schools.  And  with  rare  vision  and  fervent  patriotism  the  young 
people  have  gone  forth  to  develop  all  the  resources  of  the  country. 
Their  high  intelligence  reenforced  by  the  love  of  country  has  en- 
abled them  to  seek  out  new  and  better  means  of  production,  exchange, 
and  credit.  Thus  by  giant  strides  Denmark  has  moved  forward  to 
the  very  front  rank  among  nations  in  per  capita  wealth  and  happi- 
ness. 

Interest  in  public  ajfairs. — A  third  sphere  in  which  the  people's 
high  schools  have  exerted  a  profound  influence  is  that  of  public 
affairs.  Mention  has  previously  been  made  of  the  uses  to  which 
these  schools  were  put  by  the  rural  class  in  their  advance  toward 
political  supremacy  in  the  State.  When  the  new  democratic  Par- 
liament assembled  in  1901,  it  was  found  that  30  per  cent  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  upper  and  lower  houses  had  been  students  in  people's 
high  schools.^  Later  the  King  appointed  a  "peasant"  ministry, 
with  J.  C.  Christiansen,  a  former  people's  high-school  student,  at 
the  head.  Men  identified  with  the  people's  high-school  movement 
have  since  held  important  positions  in  the  ministry,  among  them  the 
present  minister  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  public  instruction,  Jacob 
Appel,  principal  of  the  Askov  High  School.  The  citizens  of  Copen- 
hagen regarded  this  peasant  domination  with  no  great  delectation. 
But  a  series  of  laws  have  recently  been  enacted  by  this  same  majority, 
which  have  become  models  for  imitation  by  other  nations. 

In  any  event  it  is  an  imposing  spectacle  to  see  a  social  group  which  a  few 
centuries  ago  belonged  to  the  lowest  and  most  oppressed  class  of  society  put 
forward  a  body  of  representatives  that  have  shown  in  the  few  years  of  their 
activity  that  they  posses  creative  ideas  of  statesmenship  and  the  energy  to 
make  them  effective.' 

If  people's  high-school  men  hold  position  of  influence  and  trust 
so  high  in  the  political  realm,  their  number  in  the  councils  of  county, 

*  Thornton,  op.  clt,  p.  129. 

■Hollmann,  Den  Danske  Folkehojskole,  p.  73. 


IN-FLITENCE   AND  RESULTS.  141 

town,  and  parish  must  be  very  large  indeed.  The  contribution  of 
these  people's  institutions  to  good  citizenship  is  one  of  their  largest 
services. 

Social  results. — The  broadening  effect  of  popular  education  has 
also  served  to  eliminate  in  a  large  measure  the  class  distinctions 
which  were  formerly  very  marked.  The  people's  high  schools  are 
sought  by  the  children  of  the  well-to-do  as  well  as  by  the  poorer 
classes.  And  "the  people  who  toil"  have  by  the  agency  of  the 
people's  high  school  been  raised  to  a  position  of  true  dignity  and 
respect  in  the  eyes  of  the  total  population.  The  social  life  of  rural 
communities  has  been  enriched.  The  village  hall  forms  a  social 
center  for  the  local  population.  There  they  gather  as  one  large 
family  to  enjoy  a  lecture,  a  debate,  a  program  of  readings  or  song. 
There,  too,  the  boys  come  together  on  certain  evenings  for  gymnastic 
exercises,  and  still  other  evenings  are  devoted  to  the  various  forms 
of  amusement,  such  as  folk  dances  or  games. 

The  high-school  homes  or  hotels  constitute  other  centers  of  social 
intercourse,  where  travelers  and  residents  may  meet  for  companion- 
ship and  interchange  of  ideas.  The  people  live  sober  and  indus- 
trious lives.  Poverty  is  almost  unknown  in  rural  districts.  The 
only  objects  of  benevolence  are  unfortunates  and  cripples.  These 
are  generally  taken  care  of  by  the  local  community  and  thus  enabled 
to  spend  their  days  in  plain  comfort  in  the  midst  of  their  fellow 
villagers.  That  the  total  paid  police  force  in  all  of  Denmark 
numbers  only  a  little  over  300  ^  constitutes  a  significant  commentary 
on  the  lives  of  the  people. 

Religious  results. — A  freer  and  richer  church  life  has  been  fostered 
by  the  people's  high  schools.  This  is  best  understood  in  connection 
with  the  growth  of  the  free  church  or  Valgmenighed  movement. 
There  were  three  principal  steps  in  this  movement.^  In  1855  the  tie 
that  bound  the  parishioner  to  his  parish  church  was  loosed,  and  he 
was  permitted  to  attach  himself  elsewhere.  The  second  step  was 
taken  in  1868,  when  power  was  given  to  20  heads  of  families  at  their 
own  expense  to  build  a  church  of  their  own  and  choose  their  pastor 
out  of  the  number  of  those  legally  qualified  for  office.  Their  choice 
would  then  be  ratified  by  the  King,  and  thus  they  would  be  saved 
from  becoming  dissenters.  Finally,  in  1903,  permission  was  given 
such  free  congregations  to  use  the  parish  church  at  such  times  as  it 
was  not  required  by  the  regular  congregation.  These  free  congrega- 
tions have  given  larger  opportunities  than  the  established  churches 
for  laymen's  activity,  and  a  richer  church  life  has  thereby  become 
possible.  Many  forms  of  social  activity  have  been  set  on  foot  by  these 
congregations.    In  fact,  some  of  the  city  churches  may  be  said  to  be 

/  1  Report  of  a  Deputation  from  Ireland,  p.  134. 

«  Thornton,  op.  cit.,  p.  126. 


142  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

institutionalized.  The  free-church  movement  may  not  be  called  a 
product  of  the  people's  high  schools,  but  this  form  of  organization 
is  fostered  by  them,  and  flourishes  best  in  their  vicinity.  Pastors  of 
the  churches  frequently  speak  and  teach  in  the  people's  high  schools, 
and  teachers  in  the  schools  reciprocate  by  taking  nn  active  part  in 
the  work  of  the  congregations.  Thus  there  is  developed,  it  is  claimed, 
a  more  virile  Christianity,  and  wider  opportunities  are  opened  up 
for  religious  activity. 

Summary. — In  this  chapter  has  been  presented  evidence  bearing 
upon  the  influence  of  the  people's  high-school  movement  upon  the 
cultural,  economic,  political,  social,  and  religious  life  of  Denmark. 
Additional  evidence  for  the  influence  of  the  Danish  institution  is 
to  be  found  in  the  extension  of  the  people's  high-school  idea  to  other 
countries.  A  review  of  this  widening  movement  constitutes  the  pur- 
pose of  the  next  chapter. 


Chapter  XI. 

PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES. 

Norway — Schools  founded, — People's  high  schools  were  introduced 
into  Norway  by  Grundtvigian  sympathizers  in  1864.  The  ground 
had  previously  been  prepared  by  the  work  of  the  teacher,  poet,  and 
editor  Ole  Vig,  who  was  imbued  with  a  passionate  desire  for  popular 
enlightenment.  The  first  high  school  was  established  at  Hamar  by 
Anker  and  Arveson.  Danish  influence  in  their  case  was  direct  and 
powerful.  Another  high-school  man,  Christoffer  Bruun,  performed 
a  large  service  by  pointing  out  the  importance  of  a  broad  cultural 
training  of  the  plain  people  and  by  laying  down  valuable  principles 
for  the  prosecution  of  the  work  of  enlightenment. 

Hindrances. — The  career  of  people's  high  schools  in  Norway  has, 
however,  been  beset  by  difficulties  and  hindrances,  official  and  other- 
wise. The  reasons  are  several.  In  the  first  period  of  their  develop- 
ment the  schools  were  very  closely  identified  with  the  Grundtvigian 
religious  movement,  which  was  by  no  means  favorably  received  by 
the  orthodox  party  in  Norway.  Generally,  too,  the  people's  high 
schools  have  taken  a  decided  stand  in  favor  of  the  introduction  of 
the  national  language,  the  Landsmaal^  in  place  of  the  present  official 
language.  The  Landsmaal  is  a  composite  language  constructed  on 
the  basis  of  the  leading  dialects  in  the  country  and  is,  therefore, 
more  thoroughly  Norse  than  the  official  language,  which  came  into 
use  during  the  Danish  domination.  The  attitude  of  the  people's 
high  schools  in  this  contest  has  operated  to  estrange  from  them  a 
large  part  of  the  population  which  is  not  in  favor  of  this  linguistic 
change.    A  similarly  partisan  attitude  has  been  taken  by  some  of  the 


143 

schools  in  political  matters,  whereby  they  iiave  come  to  be  regarded 
as  the  exponents  of  a  particular  political  creed.  These  forms  of 
partisanship  have  undoubtedly  hurt  the  high-school  movement  in 
Norway. 

Contest  with  the  county  high  schools. — In  1875  there  was  estab- 
lished by  governmental  agency  a  sj^stem  of  schools  which,  whether 
intentionally  or  not,  became  serious  competitors  of  the  people's  high 
schools.  These  are  the  Amtsskoler^  or  county  high  schools.  They 
resemble  the  people's  high  schools  in  that  they  require  attendance 
through  a  series  of  months,  but  until  recently  took  pupils  much 
younger  than  the  people's  high  schools.  They  are  also  more  utili- 
tarian and  practical  in  their  curricula. 

The  contest  between  the  people's  high  schools  and  the  county  high 
schools  for  favor  and  recognition  constitutes  the  most  interesting 
and  instructive  feature  of  the  popular  high-school  movement  in  Nor- 
way. Due  to  the  reasons  assigned  above,  and  possibly  others,  official 
favor  for  a  time  was  on  the  side  of  the  county  high  schools.  They 
were  public  institutions  and  served  a  large  constituency.  The  friends 
of  the  people's  high  schools  contended,  however,  that  the  large  num- 
ber reached  by  the  county  high  schools  was  due  to  their  taking  very 
young  pupils  with  whom  work  of  high-school  character  could  not 
successfull}^  be  carried  on.  Furthermore,  it  was  urged  against  the 
county  high  schools  that  their  influence  had  not  been  of  exactly  the 
right  kind.  They  became  stepping  stones  to  the  normal  and  other 
advanced  schools,  thus  drawing  some  of  the  brightest  boys  away 
from  the  farms  instead  of — 

enabling  them  to  live  the  farmer's  life  as  enlightened  and  interested  citizens 
with  the  living  sense  for  their  father's  life  and  ways  and  the  ends  their  fathers 
sought  to  reach.  And  so  they  have  helped  on  the  belief  which  has  become  only 
too  common  among  many  j^oung  people  that  the  farmer's  life  and  work  is  some- 
thing rather  low  and  simple,  which  may  be  good  enough  for  the  more  ignorant 
and  uneducated,  but  is  something  to  be  avoided  by  those  Who  are  gifted  and 
well  off.* 

By  the  influence  of  the  minister  of  education,  Wexelsen,  the  offi- 
cial attitude  toward  the  people's  high  schools  became  more  friendly. 
In  1900  direct  State  aid  was  voted  the  people's  high  schools  as  well 
as  the  county  high  schools.  An  additional  amount  of  State  subsidy 
was  granted  to  certain  people's  high  schools  that  maintained  an  ad- 
vanced course  for  students  who  had  previously  spent  a  year  at  a 
people's  high  school  or  county  high  school.  The  two  types  of  schools 
then  prospered  side  by  side.  But  the  practice  of  the  county  high 
schools  in  taking  very  young  pupils  brought  about  a  competition  un- 
favorable to  the  people's  high  schools.    These  latter  insisted  upon  a 

1  Quoted  by  Thornton  Schools  Public  and  Private  in  the  North  of  Europe,  p.  120. 
3334°— 15 10 


146  THE   DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

Danish  high-school  men  to  write  for  his  paper.  The  matter  of  erect- 
ing people's  high  schools  was  also  discussed  at  conferences  and  con- 
ventions, especially  at  the  meetings  of  the  National  Conference  of 
the  North  in  1867. 

Three  schools  founded. — As  a  result  of  the  campaign  of  education, 
there  was  founded  in  1868  a  school  at  Herrestad,  which  was  after- 
wards moved  to  Lunnevad.  The  first  principal  was  the  above-men- 
tioned Dr.  Aalund.  He  was  replaced  by  Dr.  P.  A.  Godecke,  one  of 
the  strong  personalities  in  the  Swedish  people's  high-school  move- 
ment. The  school  has  been  under  the  management  of  its  present 
principal,  Dr.  Herman  Odhner,  and  his  capable  wife  and  coworker 
for  more  than  30  years,  and  has  filled  a  large  place  in  the  annals  of 
the  people's  high  schools  in  Sweden. 

In  the  same  year  in  which  the  above  school  was  founded  there 
were  erected  by  more  or  less  independent  movements  two  other 
people's  high  schools  in  the  south  of  Sweden.  Due  to  the  efforts  of 
Dr.  C.  A.  Bergman,  a  school  was  begun  at  Onnestad.  To  what  ex- 
tent Danish  influence  was  operative  in  the  founding  of  this  school 
may  be  discerned  from  the  words  of  Dr.  Bergman : 

The  object  of  this  school  is  to  communicate  to  young  men  from  18  to  25 
years  of  age  the  higher  civic  enlightenment  which  must  now  be  considered  as 
necessary  for  every  member  of  the  free  peoples  of  the  north.  In  order  to  reach 
this  end  the  activity  of  the  school  ought  first  and  foremost  to  aim  at  awaken- 
ing and  developing  in  the  young  man  the  higher  life  slumbering  within  him, 
reflection,  love  of  country,  and  love  of  men  in  general;  and  next,  to  sharpen 
the  judgment,  to  extend  the  pupil's  spiritual  outlook,  to  awaken  pleasure  in 
the  work  and  activity  he  has  chosen,  in  order  and  seemliness,  and  in  the  at- 
tainment of  fresh  light  on,  and  practice  of,  everything  which  relates  to  our 
activity  as  Swedish  citizens,  as  members  of  a  parish,  as  heads  of  a  family,  as 
thoughtful  householders,  farmers,  or  members  of  any  other  profession.  The 
teachers  must  give  the  instruction  preferably  by  word  of  mouth,  in  familiar 
lectures,  or  in  answers  to  questions.  The  principal  must  be  a  man  who  is  armed 
not  only  with  a  living  fear  of  God,  a  love  of  his  country,  and  good  knowledge 
of  his  subjects,  but  also  with  power  to  impart  what  he  knows  in  a  bright  and 
living  way ;  he  ought  to  cherish  a  love  of  working  folk,  be  familiar  with  their 
circumstances,  and  be  able  at  once  to  win  his  pupils'  affection  and  respect  for 
the  ends  he  wishes  to  attain.* 

The  third  school,  founded  in  the  same  year,  came  to  be  the  largest 
in  Sweden.  It  is  located  at  Hvilan,  and  was  presided  over  for  40 
years  by  Dr.  L.  P.  Holmstrom,  a  noted  geologist,  but  preeminently  an 
enthusiast  for  a  people's  culture. 

Compared  with  Danish  schools. — Following  these  beginnings 
other  schools  were  founded  until  there  is  now  no  considerable  section 
of  the  country  without  its  people's  high  school.  Compared  with  the 
Danish  schools,  those  in  Sweden  are  somewhat  more  practical  in 

1  Quoted  by  Thornton,  op.  cit.,  pp.  122-123. 


people's  high  schools  in  other  countries.  147 

their  curricula.  History  and  literature  have  a  smaller  place,  while 
the  sciences  are  given  greater  attention.  Textbooks  are  more  gener- 
ally used,  and  individual  work  by  the  students  receives  greater  em- 
phasis than  in  Denmark. 

In  general  aims,  however,  the  schools  correspond  closely  to  those 
in  Denmark.    The  statutes  of  one  of  the  schools  express  them  thus: 

The  purpose  of  the  people's  high  schools  is  (1)  to  inspire  young  men  of  the 
district  with  a  fervent  and  steadfast  Christian  faith,  a  vigorous  patriotism 
founded  on  an  acquaintance  with  the  natural  conditions  and  history  of  Sweden, 
and  a  sound  I^nowledge  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  Swedish  people;  (2)  to 
give  these  young  men  an  elevating  insight  into  the  concordant  phenomena  of 
creation,  the  forms,  powers,  and  evolutions  of  nature;  and  (3)  to  teach  them 
how  to  work  as  law-abiding  citizens,  .everyone  in  his  profession,  with  loyalty 
and  disinterestedness,  to  the  benefit  of  his  native  country  and  himself.  All 
instruction  in  the  people's  high  schools  to  be  pithy,  simple,  and  clear,  its  aim 
being  to  warm  the  heart,  raise  the  intelligence,  purify  the  imagination,  mold 
the  character  into  firmness  and  stability,  and  thus  to  make  the  young  men 
fully  ripe,  to  make  them  skilled  laborers  and  go-ahead  citizens/ 

As  to  teaching  force,  the  schools  rank  somewhat  higher  than  in 
Denmark.  The  principal,  who  is  generally  a  doctor  of  philosophy, 
bears  the  title  of  Rektor^  which  in  itself  is  significant  of  the  rank 
gf  the  schools.  The  balance  of  the  teachers  are  also  frequentlj^  uni- 
versity trained,  it  being  considered  just  as  creditable  to  teach  in  a 
people's  high  school  as  in  a  secondary  school  of  the  ordinary  type. 

Characteristic  feature. — The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the 
people's  high-school  arrangements  in  Sweden  is  the  maintenance  of 
an  agricultural  school  in  connection  with  nearly  every  people's  high 
school.  As  a  prerequisite  for  entrance  to  the  agricultural  school  a 
previous  year's  work  in  a  people's  high  school  is  required.  The 
impression  has  therefore  come  to  prevail  that  a  complete  course  at 
one  of  these  people's  high  schools  embraces  two  terms,  one  in  the 
people's  high  school  proper,  and  one  in  the  agricultural  school. 
About  one-third  of  the  boys  return  for  this  second  year's  work. 

Present  status. — State  aid  has  been  granted  directly  to  the  people's 
high  schools  since  1872,  the  amount  at  present  aggregating  over 
200,000  kroner  annually,  besides  35,000  kroner  for  scholarships.^ 
In  1912  provision  was  made  by  act  of  Parliament  for  a  special  in- 
spector of  people's  high  schools  whose  work  is  to  be  chiefly  advisory. 
There  were,  in  1909,  43  people's  high  schools  in  Sweden.  Nine  of 
these  are  coeducational,  while  in  the  rest  the  boys  attend  in  winter 
and  the  girls  in  summer.  The  total  attendance  in  the  people's  high- 
school  departments  was  2,251,  of  whom  1,193  were  boys  and  1,058 
girls.^    From  the  beginning  of  the  movement  in  1868  up  to  the  pres- 

ijonsson.  The  People's  High  Schools  in  Sweden,  p.  4. 
*De  Nordiska  Lfindernas  Skolvtlsen,  1905-1910,  p.  12. 


150  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

against  German  influence.  One  school  was  erected  in  1906  at  iVU- 
bersdorf,  in  Holstein,  and  another  the  following  year  at  Mohrkirch- 
Osterholz,  in  Angel.  According  to  a  report  on  the  nature  of  the 
work  by  the  principal  of  the  Allbersdorf  school,  Fr.  Lembl^e,  it  ap- 
pears that  these  schools  are  built  more  on  the  Swedish  than  the 
Danish  model.  He  gives  expression  to  the  wish  that  the  time  be 
not  far  distant  when  one  may  speak  not  only  of  Scandinavian,  but 
also  of  Germanic  people's  high  schools.^ 

England — A  recent  attenfipt. — A  most  interesting  attempt  to  build 
an  adult  school  with  the  same  general  purpose  as  the  Danish  has 
recently  been  made  at  Fircroft,  near  Birmingham,  England.  Some 
three  years  before  he  became  principal  of  this  school,  Mr.  Tom 
Bryan  visited  at  the  people's  high  school  at  Vallekilde,  Denmark, 
and  was  strongly  impressed  by  the  spirit  and  purpose  of  the  Danish 
people's  high  school,  as  summarized  in  the  statement : 

The  main  object  of  tliis  school  is  rot  to  impart  to  our  pupils  a  mass  of  use- 
ful information;  that  is  only  a  secondary  aim.  The  principal  aim  is  to  impart 
to  them  a  spiritual  view  of  life,  so  that  they  may  see  there  is  some  sense  in 
their  existence.' 

Perhaps  even  more  powerful  Danish  influence  is  traceable  through 
the  person  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Thornton,  who  for  a  generation  has  made  a 
special  study  of  education  in  Scandinavia  and  has  persistertly 
pointed  out  to  Englishmen  the  benefits  accruing  to  those  countries 
from  the  people's  high  schools.  Furthermore,  the  adult  schools  and 
university  settlements  have  given  the  English  soil  a  tillage  which 
should  afford  the  people's  high  school  a  prosperous  growth.  As  the 
village  lecturing  societies  in  Denmark  serve  as  recruiting  agencies  for 
the  people's  high  schools,  so  these  adult  schools  in  England  draw 
out  the  idealists  and  seekers  after  truth  to  whom  a  school  like  Fir- 
croft should  prove  particularly  attractive. 

Character  of  the  Fircroft  school. — The  Fircroft  school,  founded  in 
1909,  is  situated  in  the  outskirts  of  the  model  residence  village  for 
workingmen,  Bournville.  It  is  also  near  the  Woodbroke  University 
Settlement,  the  courses  of  which  are  open  to  students  at  Fircroft. 
Courses  at  Fircroft  extend  through  terms  of  12  weeks  each,  there 
being  three  terms  a  year.  The  work  in  each  term  is  complete  in 
itself,  but  there  is  also  a  continuity  of  instruction  running  through 
the  three  terms,  for  the  advantage  of  such  as  can  remain  for  a  longer 
period  than  one  tarm.  The  work  includes  courses  in  history,  liter- 
ature, economics,  mathematics,  nature  study,  gardening,  and  the 
Bible.     Gymnastics  and  song  also  hold  a  large  place,  as  in  the  Dan- 

1  Stauri,  Folkehogskulen,  p.  306. 

■  Quoted  by  Thornton,  Reprint  from  The  Educational  Times,  May,  1911. 


t>EOPLE^S  HIGH   SCHOOLS  m   OTHEB  COtJKTKIES.  151 

ish  schools.  The  informal  lecture  and  discussion  methods  are 
largely  employed. 

Community  life,  brotherliness,  broad  culture,  and  a  spiritualizing 
of  life,  rather  than  vocational  training,  seem  to  be  attractive  fea- 
tures of  Fircroft,  as  of  the  Danish  schools.  A  London  letter  sorter 
describes  thus  the  product  of  a  stay  at  Fircroft :  "  Physical  develop- 
ment, an  enlargement  of  one's  view  of  life,  toleration  of  the  point 
of  view  of  opponents,  a  realization  that  the  past  has  produced  men 
whose  words  are  living  truths  to-day."  He  admits  there  are  no 
bread-and-butter  subjects  taught  there,  but  adds :  "  That  is  not  its 
special  work.  Its  aim  is  to  perfect  the  side  of  a  man  that  is  not 
catered  for  in  technical  schools  and  commercial  colleges.  *  *  * 
Fircroft  is  an  inspiration."^ 

The  school  has  had  a  fair  attendance  of  term  students  from  the 
start,  and  many  more  have  come  for  shorter  periods  and  for  week 
ends.  For  women,  courses  extending  through  a  period  of  one  week 
have  been  maintained  during  the  summer  and  have  been  largely  at- 
tended. Strangely  enough,  while  the  Scandinavian  schools  have  been 
recruited  largely  from  the  rural  districts,  this  school  at  Fircroft  has 
drawn  men  and  women  largely  from  the  cities.  Thus  one  group  of 
students  was  made  up  of  two  gardeners,  a  shoemaker,  a  cabinetmaker, 
a  baker,  a  clerk,  a  bricklayer,  a  painter,  a  miner,  a  metal  turner,  a 
printer's  reader,  a  weaver,  a  fitter,  two  railway  men,  and  several 
laborers.^ 

DifficuUies  and  possibilities. — There  are  real  difficulties  in  the  way, 
however,  in  making  a  people's  high  school  fit  into  English  conditions. 
The  employers  are  loth  to  grant  a  furlough  extending  over  so  long  a 
period  as  three  months.  The  ordinary  workman,  moreover,  has  diffi- 
culty in  perceiving  the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  spending  such  a 
period  of  time  in  cultural  studies.  But  the  Fircroft  school  has  made 
a  good  beginning,  and  as  a  supplement  to  the  adult  school  movement 
it  would  seem  to  point  the  way  to  a  still  greater  extension  of  the 
people's  high-school  idea. 

Whether  such  a  school  can  become  as  widely  popular  here  as  in  Denmark 
remains  to  be  seen.  If  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  had  each  50  such  schools 
dotted  about  their  country  spots,  and  other  counties  had  them  in  the  same 
proportion,  we  should  still  have  fewer  for  our  population  than  they  have  in 
Denmark.  But  they  would  be  enough  to  uplift  not  a  man  here  and  there,  as 
already  happens,  but  to  leaven  the  whole  lump.  For  Englishmen  are  of  the 
same  race  as  Danes,  Norsemen,  and  Swedes;  and  what  has  happened  on  the 
east  of  the  North  Sea  may  just  as  well  happen  on  the  wt^st.  There  is  no 
Sunday  school,  no  council  school,  no  town  or  parish  council,  no  cooperative 

*  Quoted  by  Thornton,  op.  cit. 


154  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

been  successful  and  as  having  a  future  before  them.  Students  nearly 
always  return  to  the  work  they  left,  and  thus  the  schools  serve  the 
purposes  intended.  One  principal  points  to  a  misunderstanding 
of  the  character  of  the  schools  as  one  of  the  hindrances  to  success. 
In  considering  the  success  or  failure  of  these  Danish -American  peo- 
ple's high  schools,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  schools  are 
exclusively  operating  among  Danish- Americans,  and  are  therefore 
subject  to  the  operation  of  a  particular  set  of  conditions.  A  con- 
sideration of  the  adaptability  of  the  people's  high  school  to  normal 
American  conditions  belongs  more  properly  in  the  next  chapter. 


Chapter  XII. 

CONCLUSION. 

Success  of  Danish  education — Adaptation. — Statements  about  the 
success  of  the  Danish  system  of  education  are  frequently  made  and 
generally  admitted  to  be  true.  Wherein  does  its  excellency  lie? 
This  question  does  not  permit  of  a  single  answer.  There  are  many 
elements  entering  into  the  consideration.  The  course  of  social 
progress  is  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  and  the  Danish  school 
system  is  indeed  complex.  Every  class  of  society,  from  peasantry 
to  royalty,  every  trade  and  profession,  from  the  shoemaker's  assist- 
ant to  the  prime  minister,  has  a  form  of  education  suitable  and 
adapted  to  its  purpose. 

The  Danes  believe  thoroughly  in  training,  and  every  inducement 
is  held  out  to  the  youth  to  attain  proficiency.  Their  ideal  is  first 
to  lay  a  foundation  with  as  good  a  general  education  as  the  parental 
means  and  the  child's  capacities  allow.  As  has  been  noted  in  the 
scheme  of  education,  there  is  an  opportunity  to  complete  a  course 
of  general  training  at  almost  any  year  in  the  young  person's  life. 
If  the  child  can  only  go  through  the  elementary  school,  he  finishes 
at  14;  if  he  can  enter  the 'middle  school  at  11,  he  finishes  at  15;  if 
he  can  take  the  additional  Real  course,  he  finishes  at  16.  For  girls 
there  are  courses  finishing  at  17,  while  the  complete  gymnasium 
course  carries  the  student  to  18.  Then  he  may  enter  the  imiversity, 
with  opportunities  before  him  limited  only  by  his  inclinations  and 
purse.  To  those  who  do  not  receive  academic  training,  there  lie  open 
the  facilities  of  the  continuation  and  the  people's  high  schools.  And 
the  fact  that  10  per  cent  of  students  in  these  people's  high  schools 
are  over  25  years  of  age  indicates  the  prevalence  of  the  idea  that 
one's  education  is  never  limited  by  age. 

Having  obtained  as  good  a  general  education  as  possible,  there 
remains  to  prepare  for  a  vocation.     The  multitudinous  industrial 


CONCLUSION.  155 

and  trade  schools,  commercial  and  agricultural  schools,  and  the  uni- 
versity with  its  professional  colleges,  minister  to  the  needs  for  voca- 
tional training. 

Many  of  the  Danish  schools  are  not  models  of  excellence,  and  the 
methods  are  not  always  such  as  are  considered  the  best  in  the  most 
modern  educational  circles,  but  a  sincere  effort  is  made  to  reach 
every  child  with  the  best  cultural  and  vocational  training  possible 
under  the  circumstances.  Denmark  has  employed  in  the  culture  of 
her  children  the  same  methods  of  patient  detail  and  intensified  effort 
that  she  has  applied  to  the  culture  of  her  farms  and  dairy  herds, 
and  she  must  be  credited  with  achieving  success  in  both  particulars. 
This  character  of  detailed  adaptation  of  educational  agencies  to  the 
needs  of  her  people  is  undoubtedly  the  chief  strength  of  the  Danish 
educational  system. 

Cooperation  of  public  and  private  endeavor. — The  system  is  made 
possible  largely  through  the  wonderful  cooperation  between  private 
and  public  enterprise  in  education.  The  State  does  not  abrogate  to 
itself  the  entire  privilege  and  responsibility.  It  takes  the  attitude 
that  the  problem  of  adequate  educational  facilities  is  so  large  that 
every  means  for  furthering  its  solution  should  be  encouraged.  No 
individual  who  has  money  to  invest  in  education  and  no  group  or 
society  which  has  educational  effort  as  a  part  of  its  program  is 
discouraged.  The  contributing  efforts  of  all  are  welcomed.  This 
does  not  imply  that  inefficiency  is  encouraged.  By  its  systems  of 
inspection  and  reports  the  State  endeavors  to  protect  the  people 
against  educational  fraud. 

Compulsory  attendance. — Not  only  does  Denmark  offer  to  every 
child  the  opportunity  of  an  education,  but  she  insists  that  he  shall 
make  use  of  it.  Her  success  in  the  enforcement  of  the  compulsory 
school  law  up  to  the  age  of  14  is  indeed  noteworthy.  This  insures 
a  fair  education  to  every  child  and  constitutes  a  significant  element 
of  excellence. 

Dignity  of  the  teaching  profession, — That  her  schools  are  staffed 
with  so  large  a  percentage  of  men  who  make  teaching  their  life  work 
indicates  that  Denmark  regards  educational  work  with  high  respect. 
Teaching  is  not  looked  upon  as  a  stepping-stone  to  something  better, 
but  as  a  profession  having  worth  and  dignity  in  itself.  Thorough 
training  is  required  for  appointment,  the  tenure  is  stable,  a  profes- 
sional spirit  is  cultivated,  the  social  station  of  teachers  is  high,  sal- 
aries are  comparatively  good,  and  a  suitable  pension  automatically 
provides  for  the  needs  of  old  age.  The  public  recognizes  the  sig- 
nificance of  educational  work  by  providing  better  and  better  equip- 
ment for  its  prosecution. 


158  THE  DANISH   PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

have  fastened  themselves  upon  the  curriculum  of  the  ordinary  school 
have  been  pared  away  and  discarded.  The  principles  which  deter- 
mine the  curriculum  in  a  people's  high  school  are,  of  course,  not  the 
same  as  those  which  operate  in  other  types  of  schools,  but  the  spirit 
and  the  tendency  of  making  the  curriculum  conform  is  the  lesson 
which  these  schools  would  teach. 

Method. — In  point  of  method  the  success  attained  by  the  people's 
high-school  teachers  in  presenting  ideas  is  suggestive  not  only  for 
teachers,  but  also  for  all  persons  who  are  engaged  in  conveying  ideas 
through  public  address.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  method  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  that  subject.  Briefly, 
it  consists  of  such  wide  reading  and  a  mastery  of  the  subject  so 
thorough  as  to  make  the  teacher  not  only  independent  of  a  textbook, 
but  actually  able  to  live  his  theme  with  his  pupils.  Having  gained 
such  mastery,  it  remains  to  select  the  vital  and  climatic  and  present 
it  with  detail  sufficient  to  make  the  presentation  vivid,  and  in  such 
lucid  and  simple  language  as  to  be  easily  understood  by  all.  The 
desirability  of  masteiy  in  this  kind  of  teaching  will  be  granted,  even 
though  its  attainment  is  admittedly  not  easy.  Thi  success  of  even 
the  average  people's  high-school  teacher  would  indicate,  however, 
that  it  is  attainable  by  a  far  greater  number  of  teachers  than  do 
possess  it. 

Personality. — Success  with  this  method  is  undoubtedly  bound  up 
with  personality.  We  have  previously  made  reference  to  the  Danish 
respect  for  this  quality  in  teachers,  and  nowhere  is  this  more  true 
than  in  the  people's  high  school.  In  fact,  the  personality  and  indi- 
viduality of  the  teachers  may  be  said  to  be  the  core  of  the  schools. 
The  teachers  are  so  tremendously  in  earnest  and  enter  w^ith  such 
zest  into  their  teaching  that  impression  and  conviction  are  bound  to 
follow.  The  writer  has  had  the  privilege  of  hearing  some  public 
speakers  of  renown,  but  he  must  confess  that,  when  preparing  a 
subject  for  public  presentation,  there  frequently  emerges  into  the 
forefront  of  his  consciousness  the  image  of  a  certain  people's  high- 
school  principal  standing  before  150  farmer  boys.  It  was  at  5 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  "  between  the  dusk  and  the  daylight."  He 
had  himself  chosen  the  hour.  His  theme  was  a  Danish  poet  previ- 
ously known  to  the  writer  only  by  name.  With  eye  meeting  eye  in 
tense  attention  and  sympathetic  understanding,  the  teacher  lived  the 
beautiful  life  of  that  poet  over  again  with  those  farmer  boys.  He 
dwelt  on  the  significant  moments  in  the  poet's  life,  the  moments  of 
decision,  of  disappointment,  and  of  triumph.  Eeciting  poem  after 
poem  from  memory,  he  pictured  the  ardor  of  the  poet's  desire  to 
reach  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen  and  draw  them  up  to  higher 
things.  Virtually  the  poet  himself  was  reincarnated  into  living 
form,  and  it  is  superfluous  to  add  that  the  message  went  home. 


CONCLUSION.  159 

Adaptability  in  the  United  States. — Is  the  idea  of  the  Danish  peo- 
ple's high  school  adapted  to  American  conditions?  This  is  a  ques- 
tion frequently  asked.  It  can  be  answered  only  by  pointing  to  factors 
that  are  favorable  as  well  as  those  that  are  unfavorable,  and  by 
indicating  what  adjustments  must  be  made,  in  order  to  present  at 
least  an  opportunity  for  success,  and  what  plan  is  most  likely  to  fit 
conditions  in  the  United  States. 

Struggle  for  existence  not  so  keen, — Some  conditions  in  America 
are  without  doubt  unfavorable  to  the  reception  of  the  people's  high- 
school  idea.  The  struggle  for  existence  has  perhaps  not  become  so 
keen  in  the  United  States  as  in  Denmark  and  other  European  comi- 
tries.  Americans  do  not  appreciate  so  well  the  supreme  need  of 
intelligence  in  meeting  the  situations  which  life  presents.  The 
Danes  have  learned  that  only  the  intelligent  can  hope  to  succeed. 
The  ignorant  will  be  driven  to  the  wall,  in  agricultural  as  well  as 
other  lines  of  work.  Hence  the  people  eagerly  seize  upon  educa- 
tional agencies  as  means  to  make  them  more  efficient  breadwinners. 
Such  keen  appreciation  of  the  necessity  of  education  for  the  farmer 
boy  is  perhaps  not  current  in  this  country. 

In  the  United  States,  with  its  hitherto  wide  expanse  of  unoccupied 
territory,  the  farmer  boy,  rather  than  develop  himself  and  his  home 
farm  intensively,  has  gone  West,  where  a  livelihood  and  even  wealth 
might  be  had  with  but  a  small  capital  of  money  and  intelligence. 
Clearly,  however,  such  conditions  can  not  long  obtain.  Intensive 
eifort  must  be  the  method  in  the  future,  and  Americans  are  begin- 
ning to  appreciate  the  fact  that  successful  intensive  effort  can  not  be 
made  without  education  of  the  farmer  boy. 

Change  of  occupation. — Another  factor  militating  against  success 
for  the  people's  high  school  in  this  country  is  the  unsettled  state  of 
the  farmer  boy's  mind.  He  is  by  no  means  sure,  at  the  age  of  18, 
that  he  will  always  be  a  farmer.  With  American  traditions  of  the 
possibility  of  rising  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  position  in  busi- 
ness, politics,  or  other  forms  of  activity,  the  farmer  boy  dreams  of 
conquests  in  other  lines  than  agriculture.  Toiling  hard  from  morn- 
ing to  night,  he  is  tempted  to  look  with  longing  at  the  supposed 
easy  life  of  the  city  man,  who  may  wear  good  clothes  and  has  no 
chores  to  do  in  the  evening.  If  he  goes  away  to  school  at  a  young 
age,  he  enters  the  high  school  or  academy  with  the  intention  of  pre- 
paring for  college  or  some  vocation  other  than  farming.  If  he  does 
not  go  until  18  or  later,  he  generally  attends  the  business  college,  to 
equip  himself  for  a  clerical  position  off  the  farm.  It  does  not  occur 
to  him  or  to  his  parents  or  friends  to  go  away  to  school  with  the  in- 
tention of  returning  to  the  farm.  Why  go  away  to  school  at  all,  if 
he  can  not  improve  his  situation?  This  generally  means  getting 
3334°— 15 ^11 


160  THE  DANISH  people's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

into  some  other  vocation  than  farming.  To  a  population  controlled 
by  such  ideas  and  ideals  the  people's  high  school  does  not  look  par- 
ticularly attractive.  But  in  this  respect,  too,  the  United  States  is 
progressing.  The  life  of  the  farmer  is  becoming  more  attractive 
every  day,  and  is  growing  in  dignity.  The  back-to-the-farm  move- 
ment, rural-life  commissions,  the  telephone,  daily  delivery  of  mail, 
good  roads,  rapid  transit,  and  the  high  price  of  agricultural  produce 
are  making  the  farmer's  life  more  and  more  worth  while.  Not  only 
is  this  change  welcomed  by  the  sociologist  who  loves  his  country,  but 
it  is  recognized  as  a  compelling  necessity  in  order  that  the  backbone 
of  the  Nation — the  rural  population — may  be  made  strong  to  resist 
the  growing  attractions  and  injurious  influence  of  city  life.  An  es- 
sential element  in  this  new  rural  development  is  proper  educational 
facilities.  Thus  by  the  growing  pressure  of  the  struggle  for  exis- 
tence, the  increasing  attractiveness  of  farm  life  and  the  need  of 
strengthening  its  hold  upon  the  people,  the  United  States  is  being 
driven  to  seek  out  new^  lines  of  educational  supply  for  the  rural 
population. 

The  people's  high-school  idea. — To  the  solution  of  this  educational 
problem  the  Danes  contribute  their  people's  high-school  idea.  But 
here  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Danish  people's  high  school 
is  a  school  of  general  culture,  not  a  vocational  school.  The  Danes  be- 
lieve that  broad  culture  provides  the  best  equipment  for  the  young 
farmer.  They  do  not  underrate  specialized  skill.  That  is  highly 
valuable  and  necessary  in  addition  to  broad  intelligence  and  sym- 
pathy, and  they  provide  for  it  in  their  agricultural  schools.  But  if 
only  the  one  side  can  be  had  in  school,  they  choose  the  broad  train- 
ing, and  trust  that  actual  work  will  develop  the  requisite  skill. 

American  ideas  of  education  for  the  farmer  boy  and  girl  are,  per- 
haps, not  so  liberal.  There  has  been  much  haranguing  at  the  futility 
of  the  liberal  education  of  our  high  schools  as  a  training  for  a 
people  who  work  with  their  hands,  and  perhaps  the  curriculum 
and  spirit  ol  the  average  school  merit  the  censure  they  have  re- 
ceived. The  pendulum  appears  to  have  swung  to  the  other  extreme, 
however,  where  Avorship  is  accorded  the  golden  calf  of  practical  edu- 
cation. Shrines  to  this  god  are  springing  up  on  every  hand  and  the 
chant  rings  out :  Let  us  teach  our  boys  how  to  plow  the  land,  rotate 
the  crops,  feed  the  cow,  and  breed  the  hog.  This  may  be  all  ver}' 
well,  but  the  Danes  tell  us  it  is  all  wrong  if  this  great  truth  is  over- 
looked— that  the  farmer  is  first  of  all  a  man,  a  spiritual  being  of 
divine  destiny,  with  capacity  for  wide  human  interests,  capable  of 
enjoying  the  beautiful  in  art  and  literature,  and  with  a  heart  that 
may  throb  with  the  love  of  home  and  country.  Efforts  at  making 
a  good  farmer  will  fail  fundamentally  so  long  as  there  is  not  de- 
veloped the  personality  of  the  man. 


CONCLUSION.  161 

In  their  opposition  to  academic  education,  the  Danes  have  been 
more  moderate  than  the  people  of  the  United  States.  With  vision 
and  sympathy  they  have  built  up  their  system  of  people's  high 
schools,  giving  a  culture  that  is  suitable  for  the  plain  people,  and  on 
this  foundation  they  are  building  their  vocational  training.  Until 
this  principle  is  recognized,  that  the  man  is  above  the  farmer  and 
that  thought  must  precede  skill,  the  atmosphere  can  not  be  favor- 
able to  the  reception  of  the  central  idea  of  the  Danish  people's  high 
school.  There  is  at  least  some  evidence  that  in  America,  too,  the 
pendulum  is  about  to  swing  back  to  this  happy  mean.  If  such  be  the 
course  of  development,  the  usefulness  of  the  people's  high-school 
idea  would  not  seem  to  be  precluded  from  the  American  system  of 
rural  education. 

Necessary  adjustments. — In  order  to  make  it  possible  for  the  peo- 
ple's high  schools  to  thrive  on  American  soil,  they  must  be  acclima- 
tized. This  is  a  double  process.  In  the  first  place,  the  American 
people,  and  especially  teachers,  must  be  familiarized  with  the  genius 
of  the  people's  high  schools.  They  must  learn  to  know  what  the 
schools  are,  what  is  their  aim,  their  spirit,  their  content,  and  their 
method.  On  the  other  hand,  the  schools  must  be  adapted  to  the 
genius  of  the  American  people.  They  can  not  simply  be  trans- 
planted to  our  soil.  If  they  are  to  thrive,  they  must  undergo  certain 
modifications  and  changes. 

A  tentative  flan. — It  would  seem,  in  the  first  place,  that  existing 
higher  schools  for  general  culture,  which  are  located  in  agricultural 
communities,  might  advantageously  arrange  short  courses  of  a  peo- 
ple's high-school  nature  for  adult  rural  young  people.  In  connection 
with  such  an  idea,  several  considerations  must  be  kept  in  mind. 
The  courses  must  be  short  and  given  at  such  times  of  the  year  as 
make  it  possible  for  the  young  people  to  attend.  Thus  courses  for 
young  men  would  have  to  be  conducted  in  the  winter  time,  when 
their  services  are  not  in  such  large  demand  on  the  farms.  For  girls' 
courses,  it  would  seem  that  the  many  empty  school  buildings  might 
be  utilized  during  tho  long  summer  vacations  current  in  this  country. 
It  does  seem  regrettable  that  buildings  in  which  such  large  capital 
has  been  invested  should  stand  idle  for  a  fourth  of  the  year.  Such 
lack  of  use  of  a  factory  plant  would  be  condemned  by  even  a  tyro  in 
economics. 

Furthermore,  the  courses  must  constitute  a  whole  in  themselves, 
not  be  mere  fragments  of  a  high  school  or  academy  course.  Their 
content  too  must  be  selected  with  particular  reference  to  the  needs 
of  rural  young  people  who  expect  to  return  to  the  farm  when  the 
course  is  completed.  There  are  schools  enough  which  tend  to  take 
the  young  people  olf  the  farms ;  a  people's  high-school  course  should 


162  THE   DANISH   PEOPLE 's   HIGH   SCHOOL. 

encourage  to  stay  on  the  farm,  and  the  instruction  should  be  planned 
accordingly.  Finally,  the  courses  must  be  made  available  for  so 
small  an  outlay  by  the  students  or  with  such  financial  assistance  in 
the  form  of  scholarships  that  no  worthy  applicant  would  be  barred 
by  lack  of  funds. 

A  public  school. — ^The  last  consideration,  particularly,  leads  to  the 
conviction  that  successful  people's  high  schools  in  this  country  would 
have  to  be  supported  by  public  funds.  But  few  private  schools  are 
so  strong  financially  as  to  be  able  to  offer  courses  at  such  low  rates 
as  to  place  them  within  the  reach  of  rural  young  people  of  limited 
means.  And  since  in  this  country  cooperation  between  private  and 
public  enterprise  in  education  is  virtually  impossible,  the  only  re- 
course would  seem  to  be  to  public  support.  The  most  natural  gov- 
ernmental unit  to  assume  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a 
rural  people's  high  school  would  seem  to  be  the  county.  This  unit 
would  bring  to  the  support  of  the  schools  the  efforts  not  only  of  the 
strictly  rural  sections,  but  also  of  the  villages  and  cities,  which,  in 
an  agricultural  section,  are  so  largely  dependent  for  prosperity  upon 
the  welfare  of  the  surrounding  rural  districts.  To  equalize  the 
burden  of  support  and  make  available  State  school  funds,  the  prin- 
ciple of  granting  State  aid  ought  properly  to  be  called  into  play. 
And  if  the  Federal  Government  could  see  its  way  clear  to  contribute 
something  to  the  support  of  such  a  system  of  people's  schools,  the 
burden  of  support  would  seem  not  insurmountable.  No  worthy 
person  need  then  be  barred  from  attendance  for  financial  reasons. 

Organization. — The  experience  of  successful  people's  high  schools 
in  Denmark  and  elsewhere  would  suggest  a  location  in  the  open 
country,  a  mile  or  two  from  village  or  city.  Such  a  location  would 
remove  the  students  from  the  immediate  influence  of  city  tempta- 
tions and  allurements,  and  still  would  leave  them  within  reach  of 
the  local  churches  and  exceptional  cultural  opportunities  that  the 
city  might  from  time  to  time  offer.  Land  should  be  available  suffi- 
cient for  experimental  purposes.  The  boarding  feature  would  seem 
essential,  both  by  reason  of  the  location  of  the  schools,  away  from 
centers  of  population,  and  in  order  to  make  them  attractive  to  the 
young  people. 

As  previously  emphasized,  courses  must  be  short.  The  best  time 
for  boys  would  clearly  be  in  winter.  For  girls  the  season  of  the  year 
would  seem  less  significant,  but  the  proper  utilization  of  the  plant 
would  require  their  attendance  during  the  summer.  The  writer  sees 
no  valid  reason,  however,  for  having  the  girls'  courses  shorter  than 
those  for  boys.  If  boys  should  attend  five  months,  from  November 
to  March  inclusive,  and  girls  five  months,  in  summer,  there  would  be 
a  month  available  in  the  spring  and  fall  for  an  overhauling  of  the 
plant. 


CONCLUSION.  163 

A  satisfactory  program  would  seem  to  require  two  terms,  the 
first  year's  course  being  for  general  cultural  purposes,  and  the  second 
for  vocational  training,  agriculture  for  boys,  housekeeping  and  do- 
mestic science  for  girls.  The  age  limit  for  entrance  should  be  set 
so  high — 17  or  18 — as  to  admit  only  those  young  people  who  are 
mature  enough  to  profit  by  the  instruction  and  who  have  virtually 
decided  upon  agriculture  as  their  vocation. 

Curricula. — The  above  characterization  of  courses  roughly  indi- 
cates their  content.  There  would  seem  to  be  a  place  in  the  life  of 
rural  young  people  for  a  cultural  course  which  may  open  to  them  the 
treasures  of  our  inspiring  history,  literature,  and  song;  acquaint 
them  with  the  lives  and  thoughts  of  men  and  women  who  have 
shaped  the  course  of  events;  reveal  to  them  the  elementary  prin- 
ciples of  the  physical  and  biological  sciences  in  order  to  make  their 
environment  intelligible;  introduce  them  to  some  of  those  social, 
economic,  and  civic  problems  which  their  station  in  life  will  confront 
them  with;  and  let  them  return  to  the  farm  with  enlarged  vision 
of  duties  and  opportunities  and  a  new  estimate  of  life's  values. 

To  outline  even  in  the  rough  the  curricula  for  the  vocational 
courses  seems  unnecessary.  The  names  suggest  with  sufficient  clear- 
ness the  principal  subject  matter.  Let  it  be  said,  however,  that  ac- 
cording to  Danish  experience  a  certain  amount  of  cultural  work 
fits  in  very  well  even  in  a  vocational  course. 

Methods. — It  would  seem  that  the  contribution  of  the  Danish 
people's  high  schools  in  point  of  method  ought  to  be  utilized  in  any 
scheme  of  people's  schools.  The  wonderful  success  attending  the 
informal  lecture  method,  whereby  personality  is  given  full  play, 
suggests  its  use  in  as  large  a  measure  as  practicable.  The  antipathy 
to  the  use  of  textbooks  displayed  by  certain  people's  high-school 
men  must,  however,  be  guarded  against.  The  Swedish  schools  sug- 
gest that  considerable  work  by  the  students  themselves  is  accom- 
panied by  beneficent  results. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  idea  that  such  a  rural  people's 
high  school  is  preparatory  to  some  other  school  or  some  other  vo- 
cation than  agriculture.  It  should  be  regarded  as  a  finishing  school 
for  the  rank  and  file  of  the  farming  population.  The  granting  of 
diplomas  admitting  to  other  schools  or  vocations  should  therefore 
be  avoided.  Certificates  of  attendance,  industry,  and  character 
should  suffice  for  all  exigencies  that  might  arise  in  the  subsequent 
career  of  a  student.  The  door  to  advancement  in  any  line  of  activity, 
and  further  educational  facilities  should  not  be  closed  to  a  young 
person  who  has  passed  through  such  a  people's  high  school.  Ex- 
ceptional young  people  should  be  afforded  exceptional  opportuni- 
ties.    But  exceptional  individuals  should  not  establish  the  normal 


164  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

course  of  procedure.  Experience  shows  that  the  genius  generally 
discovers  himself  and  finds  a  way  of  his  own.  The  chief  concern 
of  the  average  school  must  be  for  the  average  student. 

Place  in  the  educational  system. — The  question  arises,  How  will 
such  a  school  fit  into  the  American  scheme  of  education?  Is  there 
a  place  for  it  ?  Is  not  the  field  covered  by  existing  schools  or  schools 
in  the  process  of  building?  As  far  as  cultural  education  for  the 
rural  population  is  concerned,  there  seem  to  be  very  few  schools  that 
are  not  mapped  out  along  the  lines  of  the  traditional  high  school  or 
academy  course.  And  these  courses  have  been  cordially  condemned, 
both  because  of  their  unsuitable  curricula  and  because  of  their  tend- 
ency to  draw  the  young  people's  interests  away  from  the  farm. 
Efforts  are  being  made  to  remedy  the  situation  by  adding  agricul- 
tural subjects  and  other  features,  but  there  still  remains  the  objec- 
tion of  the  long  terms  and  the  many  years  which  virtually  exclude  the 
mass  of  the  rural  young  people.  Only  an  exceptionally  favored  child 
here  and  there  can  take  advantage  of  such  four-year  courses  of  nine 
months  each  year.  And  anything  but  a  complete  course  of  such  a 
character  is  but  a  fragment. 

For  vocational  education,  State  and  county  agricultural  colleges 
are  subject  to  the  same  objection  of  the  length  of  time  involved  in 
completing  a  course.  These  schools  have  undoubtedly  filled  a  va- 
cancy in  the  school  system,  and  will  continue  to  hold  a  place  of  in- 
creasing significance,  but  clearly  the  masses  of  rural  young  people 
will  remain  untouched  by  them  in  their  present  form.  When  one 
considers  that  the  Danish  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural 
schools  gather  within  their  folds  frrm  25  to  33  of  every  100  of  the 
rural  population,  it  is  evident  that  by  comparison  present  facilities 
in  the  United  States  for  rural  education  are  not  generous.  There 
would  seem  to  be  a  place  in  the  scheme  of  rural  schools  for  an  institu- 
tion that  may  take  the  adult  young  people  who  have  decided  to  stay 
on  the  farm,  for  such  a  period  of  the  year  as  they  can  get  away  from 
their  work,  and  give  them,  at  a  minimum  of  expense,  a  reasonably 
complete  course  in  general  culture  and  in  the  most  necessary  techni- 
cal phases  of  their  vocation. 

A  training  school  for  teachers. — A  highly  desirable  feature  of  any 
system  of  people's  high  schools  would  be  a  training  school  where 
teachers  might  be  equipped  for  service  in  the  schools.  Such  school, 
receiving  candidates  of  a  broad  general  training,  should  endeavor 
particularly  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  history  and  principles  of 
popular  enlightenment;  the  unique  aims  and  spirit  of  the  people's 
high  school,  and  the  means  and  methods  by  which  it  is  sought  to 
attain  the  ends  in  view.  It  should  also  afford  training  in  the  actual 
conduct  of  people's  high-school  work. 


CONCLUSION,  165 

Conclusion. — ^Whatever  the  difficulties  attendant  upon  the  estab- 
lishment and  operation  of  a  system  of  people's  high  schools ;  whatever 
the  necessary  variations  and  adjustments  in  their  organization,  ad- 
ministration, content,  or  method,  it  would  seem  that  the  central  idea 
of  the  people's  high-school  movement — the  raising  of  the  entire  cul- 
tural level  of  the  plain  people — is  good  for  any  country.  Judging 
by  the  service  which  they  have  performed  for  Denmark  and  other 
countries  in  the  direction  of  cultural,  economic,  civic,  social,  and  re- 
ligious advancement,  it  would  seem  that  these  people's  schools  have 
an  especially  significant  contribution  to  make  to  a  nation  living  un- 
der a  government  of,  by,  and  for  the  people. 


APPENDIX   A. 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 

Table  28. — Average  number  of  students  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural 
schools  each  year  from  1844  to  1911} 


People's  high  schools. 

Agricultural  schools. 

Grand 
total. 

Ratio  of 
agricultu- 
ral stu- 
dents to 

grand 

total. 

Ratio  of 
girls  in 

Years. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

people's 

hilh 
schools  to 
total  in 

schools. 

1844-45  to  1845-46 

184fr-47  to  1850-51 

1851-52  to  1855-56 

1856-57  to  1860-61 

1861-62  to  1865-66 

1866-67  to  1870-71 

1871-72  to  1875-76 

1876-77  to  1880-81 

1881-82  to  1885-86 

1886-87  to  1890r-91 

1891-92  to  1895-96 

1896-97  to  1900-1901 

1901-2  to  1905-6     

34 

20 

135 

209 

331 

1,320 

2,060 

2,182 

2,151 

2,180 

2,626 

2,732 

3,249 

3,385 

3,603 

6 

14 

29 

35 

65 

371 

1,038 

1,242 

1,424 

1,587 

2,189 

2,612 

3,033 

3,153 

3,104 

40 

34 

164 

244 

396 

1,691 

3,098 

3,424 

3,575 

3,767 

4,915 

5,344 

6,282 

6,538 

6,707 

36 

42 

61 

75 

89 

186 

153 

349 

443 

418 

516 

849 

1,083 

1,175 

1,361 

2 

4 

1 
2 
7 
2 
12 
18 
82 
43 
6 
43 
156 
189 

36 

44 

65 

76 

91 

193 

155 

361 

461 

500 

559 

855 

1,126 

1,331 

1,550 

76 

78 

229 

320 

487 

1,884 

3,253 

3,785 

4,036 

4,267 

5,374 

6,199 

7,408 

7,869 

8,257 

Per  cent. 
47 
56 
28 
24 
19 
10 
5 
10 
11 
12 
10 
14 
15 
17 
19 

Per  cent. 
15 
41 
18 
14 
16 
22 
34 
36 
40 
42 
45 
49 
48 

1906-7  to  1910-11 

48 

Single  year,  1910-11 

46 

Danmarks  Statistik,  Folkehojskoler  og  Landhrugsskoler,  1906-1911,  p.  11. 
Table  29. — Social  station  of  students'  parents} 


Total. 

Large 
farmers. 

Small 
farmers. 

Laborers. 

Artisans. 

3,603 
1,361 

Per  cent. 
55 
60 

Per  cent. 
22 
16 

Per  cent. 
3 
2 

Per  cent. 
11 
5 

3,104 
189 

50 
42 

21 

24 

3 
3 

10 
13 

6,707 
1,550 

53 

58 

21 
17 

3 
3 

11 

6 

4,964 

57 

20 

3 

9 

3,293 
8,257 

49 
54 

21 

20 

2 
3 

11 
10 

Miscel  la- 


Boys  in— 

People's  high  schools , 

Agricultural  schools 

Girls  in— 

People's  high  schools 

Agricultural  schools 

Boys  and  girls  in— 

People's  high  schools 

Agricultural  schools 

Boys  in  people's  high  schools  and  agri- 
cultural schools 

Girls  in  people's  high  schools  and  agri- 
cultural schools 

Students  in  all  schools , 


Per  cent. 


17 


11 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  15. 


167 


168  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

Table  30. — Occupation  of  students  holding  scholarships,  1910-11} 


students. 


Total: 

Boys 

Girls 

People's  high  schools: 

Boys 

Girls 

Agricultural  schools: 

Boys 

Girls 


Living 
at  home. 


Per  cent. 
4 


13 


Servants. 


Per  cent. 
67 

S2 

64 
82 

78 
82 


Artisans. 


Per  cent. 
23 


Other  oc- 
cupations. 


Per  cent. 


■  Op.  cit.,  p.  30. 

Table  SI.— Age  of  students,  1910-11} 


students  in  all  schools. 


Boys  in— 

"  People's  high  schools 

Agricultural  schools 

Girls  in— 

People's  high  schools 

Agricultural  schools 

Boys  and  girls  in— 

People's  high  schools 

Agricultural  schools 

Boys  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools. 
Girls  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools. 


students  in  all  schools. 


Total. 


8.257 


1,361 
3,104 


6,707 
1,550 
4,964 
3,293 


8.257 


Below  16 

years. 


Per  cent. 

1 


16  to  18 

years. 


Per  cent. 
7 
1 


18  to  25 


6,541 


Per  cent. 

81 


Above  2.5 
years. 


1,158 


Per  cent. 
11 
33 


I  Op.  cit.,  pp.  14  ff. 

Table  32. — Teachers  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools,  distrib- 
uted according  to  numl)er  of  hours  of  instruction  per  weeJc,  1910-11?- 


i.  PEOPLE'S  HIGH   SCHOOLS. 


Hours  of  instruction  per  week. 

Not  re- 
ported. 

Total. 

1  to  6 

7  to  12 

13  to  18 

19  to  24 

25  to  30 

31  to  36 

37 

Principals: 

Men 

3 

1 
6 

16 
22 

107 
19 

18 
4 

7 

45 
24 

8 
18 

31 

19 

3 

1 

1 
1 

76 

6 

Wives  of  principals 

Permanently  appointed: 
Men 

1 

90 
24 

6 
9 

14 

53 
14 

2 
3 

15 

1 

6 

4 
2 

3 

1 

229 

Women 

88 

By  the  hour: 

Men 

126 

Women 

50 

Total: 
Men 

126 

48 

71 
53 

127 
34 

74 
17 

18 

1 

6 

2 

1 

7 
4 

431 

158 

Grand  total.... 

174 

124 

161 

91 

19 

6 

3 

11 

589 

*  Op.  cit.,  p.  36. 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 


169 


Table  32. — Teachers  in  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools,  etc. — Con. 

IL  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS. 


Hours  of  instruction 

per  week. 

Not  re- 
ported. 

Total. 

lto6 

7  to  12 

13  to  18 

19  to  24 

25  to  30 

31  to  36 

37 

Principals  men 

12 

27 
2 

3 

3 

1 

21 

1 

1 

4 

19 

Wives  of  principals 

Permanently  appointed: 
Men 

1 

6 
2 

50 
5 

4 
5 

4 
2 

2 

1 
1 

7 

65 

Women 

13 

By  the  hour: 

Men 

61 

Women 

1 

1 

1 

8 

Total: 
Men 

56 
8 

42 
2 

25 
2 

8 
6 

4 
3 

2 

1 

8 

1 

145 

Women 

23 

Grand  total.... 

64 

44 

27 

14 

7 

3 

9 

168 

Table  33. — Age  of  teachers} 


19 

20-24 

25-29 

30-34 

35-39 

40-44 

45-49 

50-54 

55-59 

60-64 

65-69 

70 

Not  re- 
ported. 

Total. 

People's    high 
schools: 

Men 

Women 

0 

1 

39 
36 

88 
39 

70 
18 

44 

14 

49 
42 

31 

7 

29 

19 

1 

12 
6 

10 
2 

8 
1 

32 
14 

431 
158 

Total 

1 

75 

127 

88 

58 

61 

38 

36 

20 

18 

12 

9 

46 

589 

Agricultural 
schools: 

Men 

Women 

0 
0 

8 
3 

26 
6 

25 
5 

20 
2 

16 

1 

10 

1 

12 

1 

6 
0 

5 
0 

1 
0 

1 

0 

15 
4 

145 
23 

Total 

0 

11 

32 

30 

22 

17 

11 

13 

6 

5 

1 

1 

19 

168 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  39.  -• 

Table  34. — Education  of  teachers} 

1.  PEOPLE'S  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Gradu- 
ates of 
gym- 
nasia. 

University 
trained. 

Gradu- 
ates of 
normal 
schools. 

Gradu- 
ates of 
agricul- 
tural 
college. 

Trained 

in 
people's 

high 
school. 

Other- 
wise 
trained. 

Gradu- 
ates in 
theol- 
ogy. 

Other 
univer- 

sity 
degrees. 

Total. 

Principals: 

Men 

3 

16 

1 

30 
2 

2 

17 
3 

7 

72 

44 

13 

8 

7 

1 
7 

39 
36 

30 
35 

76 

Women  * 

6 

W^ives  of  principals       .... 

14 

Permanently  appointed: 

Men             .       .            

3 

26 

8 

52 

8 

29 
6 

29 
14 

229 

88 

By  the  hour: 

Men 

2 

1 

31 

7 

126 

Women  

50 

Total 

9 

73 

16 

127 

45 

164 

155 

589 

Op.  cit.,  p.  38. 


170 


THE   DANISH   PEOPLE  S   HIGH    SCHOOL. 


Table  34. — Education  of  teachers — Continued. 

II.  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS. 


Gradu- 
ates of 
gym- 
nasia. 

University 
trained. 

Gradu- 
ates of 
normal 
schools. 

Gradu- 
ates of 
agricul- 
tural 
college. 

Trained 

in 
people's 

school. 

Other- 
wise 
trained. 

Gradu- 
ates in 
theol- 
ogy. 

Other 
univer- 
sity 
degrese. 

Total. 

Principals,  men 

1 

15 

2 
2 

6 
11 

4 
5 

1 

5 
2 

29 
3 

19 

Wives  of  principals 

2 

Permanently  appointed: 

Men 

1 

1 

4 

48 

65 

Women 

13 

By  the  hour: 

Men 

1 

2 

3 

6 

16 

61 

Women 

g 

Total 

1 

3 

4 

11 

79 

30 

40 

168 

Table  35. — Variations  in  emphasis  in  people's  high-school  curricula. 

[Table  shows  the  distribution  of  68  pure  people's  high  schools  on  basis  of  number  of  hours  ol  instruction 
devoted  to  each  subject  in  a  five  months'  course,  1910-11.'] 


Average 
number 
hours 
in  five 
months' 
course. 

Number  of  schools. 

1 

o 

B 

o 

.a 
! 

8 

OP 

.a 

1 

! 

'7 
1 

M 

£} 

f 

S 

o 

.a 

o 

X3 

i 

o 

a, 

1 

152 
21 
63 

201 
46 

?? 

13 

18 
95 
48 
20 
103 
20 
59 
15 
28 

3 

16 

27 

14 

6 

2 

68 

Penmanship                

21 
3 

16 
6 

26 
13 

3 
10 
1 
23 
15 
2 
3 
1 
6 
24 
4 
7 
2 
3 
2 
2 

2 
17 

68 

11 

8 
3 

68 

History , 

14 

16 

68 

Geography 

35 
39 

8 
10 
10 

1 
21 
19 

6 
3 

1 
1 

2 

68 

Physics 

1 
38 
33 

9 

10 
19 
21 

48 

'68 

Zoology  and  botany 

68 

68 

Hygiene       

68 

Arithmetic 

14 
9 

17 
2 

26 
43 

2 

.... 

1 
1 

68 

Drawing 

6 
23 

4 
17 

68 

Singing 

68 

Gymnastics 

9 
3 

7 
1 
6 

9 
9 

1 

2 

68 

Surveying... 

25 

7 

23 

41 

21 
17 
31 

7 

14 
11 
11 
5 

68 

5 

2 

68 

Civics                  

68 

Other  subjects 

3 

1 

1 

1 

68 

'  Op.  cit.,  p.  46. 

Table  S6.^— Excess  of  exports  over  imports  of  Danish  hutter — Avera-ge  per  year. 


Years. 

Amount. 

Value. 

Years. 

Amount. 

Value. 

1800 

Pounds. 
1,070,000 
3,584,000 
2,733,000 
3,763,000 
.3,212,000 
.  8,786,000 

Kroner. 

397,000 
1,111,000 
1,014,000 
l,39(i,000 
1,400,000 
7,400,000 

1870-1874 

Pounds. 
17,057,000 
21,379,000 
22,223,000 
39, 862, 000 

Kroner. 
17, 700, 000 

1820 

1875-1879 

21,700,000 

1830-1834 

1880-1884 

22,200,000 
35, 200, 000 

1835-1839 

1885-1889   

1840-1844 

1890-1894 

72,136,000 
98,700,000 

67,300,000 

1865-1869 

1895-1899 

92,200,000 

'  This  and  the  following  tables  are  from  a  centennial  publication.  Katalog  over  den  Landbohistoriske 
Udstilling,  published  in  connection  with  agricultural  expositions  in  Oaense  in  1900,  pp.  27  ff.  This  publi- 
cation has,  of  course,  not  been  continued,  and  exactly  comparable  statistics  for  later  years  are  difficult  to 
obtain. 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 


171 


Table  37. — Excess  of  exports  over  imports  of  Danish  pork  and  teans — Average 

per  year. 


Years. 

Amount. 

Value. 

Years. 

Amount. 

Vnlue. 

1763-1771 

Pounds. 

9,000 

15, 760 

36,530 

110,970 

185,470 

Kroner. 

86,000 

158,000 

1,500,000 

10,200,000 

15,200,000 

1880-1884 

Pounds. 
274,860 
136,570 
130,290 
23,740 

Kroner. 
22,400,000 

8,200,000 
10,000,000 

2,000,000 

1821-1825                  

1885-1889 

1805-1869 

1890-1894 

1870-1874 

1895-1899         

1875-1879 

Table  38. — Excess  of  exports  over  imports  of  Danish  eggs — Ai^erage  per  year. 


Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1865-1869    

Millions. 
0.6 
11.0 

24.8 
47.6 

Kroner. 

24,000 

479.000 

1.218,000 

2,241,000 

1885-1889  

Millions. 
93.3 
127.6 
207.6 

Kroner. 
4,183,000 
6,572,000 

11,220,000 

1870-1874               

1890-1894           

1875-1879  

1895-1891} 

1880-1884    

Table  39. — Size  and  value  of  potato  crop — Average  per  year. 


Years.    • 

Amount. 

Value. 

Years. 

Amount. 

Value. 

1837 

Barrels. 

1,600,000 

2,685,000 

Kroner. 

1885-1888 

Barrels. 

3,937,000 

5,009,000 

Kroner. 

13,324,000 

16,546,000 

1875-1878 

13,283,000 

1895-1898         

Table  40. — Roots  other  than  potatoes — Average  per  year. 


Years. 

Amount. 

Value. 

Year-!. 

Amount. 

Value. 

1875-1878                

Barrels. 
3,686,000 
17,641,000 

Kroner. 
6,078,000 
16,894,000 

1895-1898 

Barrels. 
36,570,000 

Kroner. 
36,892,000 

1885-1888  

Table  41. — Total  excess  of  exports  over  imports  of  the  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts in  Denmark — Average  per  year. 


Years. 

Value. 

Years. 

Value. 

1763-1771 

Kroner. 

4,320,000 

7,620,000 

61,730,000 

1880-1884 

Kroner. 
90,  50,000 
122,270,000 

1820 

1895-1899 

1865-1869 

APPENDIX   B, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  WORKS. 

Thomassen,  Fb.     Fortegnelse  over  Dansk  padagogisk  Literatur.     TJdgivet  af 
Dansk  Skolemnsenm.     Copenhagen,  1896.     143  p. 
Supplements  published  from  time  to  time. 

United  States.  Bureau  of  Education.  List  of  publications  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education.  Washington,  Government  printing  office,  1911. 
(Bulletin,  1911,  no.  17.) 

See  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  in  alphabetical  index. 

GENERAL  WORKS. 

Carlson,  J.,  Olrik,  Hans,  and  Starcke,  C.  N.    Danmarks  Kultur  ved  Aar  1900. 

Copenhagen,  1900. 

Contains  some  account  of  education. 

Danmarks  Skolevsesen.  Oversigt  over  Det  danske  Skolevsesens  Ordning,  af 
Forretningsudvalget  i  den  danske  Bestyrelse  for  det  9de  nordiske  Skole- 
mode.    Copenhagen,  1906.    56  p. 

A  good  brief  account  of  elementary  and  secondary  education  and  people's  high 
schools. 

De  Nordiska  Lsendernas  Skolvsesen :  1905-1910.  Utarbetad  for  det  lOde  Nor- 
diska  Skolmotet  i  Stockholm,  1910.     Stockholm,  1910.    135  p. 

Discusses  most  recent  educational  movements  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and 
Finland. 

Healey,  Elizabeth.     Educational  systems  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark; 
with  special  reference  to  the  education  of  girls  and  adults ;  being  the  report 
presented   to   the   trustees   of   the   Gilchrist   educational   trust.     London, 
1892.     5-56  p. 
Very  brief. 

Hertzberg,  N.    Opdragelsens  og  Skolens  Historie.    Christiania,  1910.    156  p. 
A  brief  history  of  education,  with  special  reference  to  Norway  and  Denmark. 

Hippeau,   Celestin.     L'instruction   publique  dans  les   6tats  du   nord;    SuMe. 
Norvege,  Dauemark.     Paris,  1876.     35-320  p. 
A  good  account,  but  out  of  date. 

Kobel,  Oskar.  Eine  padagogische  Studienreise  nach  Danemark,  Schweden 
und  Norwegen.    Seyffarth-Liegnitz. 

Thornton,  J.  S.    Recent  educational  progress  in  Denmark.    In  Great  Britain. 

Board  of  Education,  Special  reports  on  educational  subjects.     London,  1897. 

Vol.  1,  p.  587-614. 
Schools,  public  and  private,  in  the  north  of  Europe.    In  Great  Britain. 

Board   of  Education.     Special  reports  on  educational  subjects.     London, 

1907.     Vol.  17.     7-136  p. 
Best  single  reference. 

172 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  173 

United  States.  Bureau  of  Education.  Circular  of  information,  1877,  no.  2, 
p.  36^6.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1889-90.  Vol.  1,  p. 
519-548.  1896-97.  Vol.  1,  p.  71-101.  Information  in  former  reports,  p.  72. 
Historical  data;  chronological  survey,  p.  99-101. 

Vestrup,  August.     Vore  Dotres  Fremtid.     Veiledning  til  Uddannelse  af  unge 
Piger  til  Beskaeftigelse  i  Hjemmet  og  Selverhverv.    Copenhagen,  1894.    96  p. 
A  treatise  on  existing  educational  opportunities  for  Danisli  girls. 

Weyher,  Ernst.  Was  lehren  einem  Schulmanne  Danemark  und  Schweden? 
Schilderung  einer  Studienreise  unter  besonderer  Beriicksichtigung  der  tech- 
nischen  Unterrichtsfacher.     Breslau,  1912.     116  p. 

HISTORICAL  WORKS. 

Balling,  E.    Plan  for  en  Realskole  for  vore  Dotre.    Copenhagen,  1787.    29  p. 
Curriculum,  p.  10-18. 

Hertzberg,  N.    Opdragelsens  og  Skolens  Historic.    Christiania,  1910.    156  p. 
A  brief  history  of  education,  with  special  reference  to  Norway  and  Denmark. 

Koch,  L.  Den  danske  Landsbyskoles  Historie  til  1848.  Copenhagen,  1882. 
115  p. 

Kromen,  K.  Om  Maal  og  Midler  for  den  hojere  Skoleundervisning.  Copen- 
hagen, 1886.    329  p. 

Aims,  content,  and  methods  of  secondary  education,  treated  historically. 

Lagerstedt,  N.  G.  W.  Svenska  Uppfostringsvsesendets  Historia ;  kort  Of versikt. 
Stockholm,  1900.    70  p. 

A  brief  account  of  Old  Norse  education,  p.  5-7. 

Larsen,  JoAKiM.     Bidrag  til  den  danske  Folkeskoles  Historie  1784-1818.    Copen- 
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Based  largely  on  primary  sources,  from  which  are  copious  citations. 
Bidrag   til   den   danske   Folkeskoles   Historie   1818-1898.     Copenhagen, 


1899.    524  p. 

Extensive  treatment  of  reform  movements  culminating  in  law  of  1899. 


Bidrag  til  Kobenhavns  offentlige   Skolevsesens   Historie.     Copenhagen, 

1881.    214  p. 
Nyerup,  R.    Udkast  til  en  Historie  om  de  latinske  Skoler  i  Danmark  og  Norge. 

Copenhagen,  1804.    367  p. 

Contains  an  interesting  time-table  covering  fifteen  years,  prepared  in  1604  by  pro- ' 
fessors  of  the  university,  by  order  of  the  King,  The  course  consists  mostly  of 
Latin  grammar  and  classics.     Greek  is  begun  in  the  eleventh  year. 

Ottosen,  K.  Vor  Folkeskoles  Oprindelse  og  Udvikling.    Et  Folkeskrift.    Aarhus, 
1901.     182  p. 

A  good  account  of  the  history  of  elementary  education. 

Pai.udan,  Dr.  J.     Det  hoiere  Skolevaesen  i  Danmark,  Norge  og  S verge.    Copen- 
hagen, 1885.     809  p. 

An  historic  presentation  for  each  country,  with  special  attention  to  the  nineteenth 
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THOStfASSEN,   Fr.     Dansk    Skolemuseum,   gennem   25  Aar,    1887-1912.     Udgivet 
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Traces  growth  of  movement  for  betterment  of  school  equipment. 


174  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE 's  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

WoBM,  J.  Forsog  tel  en  Skolehistorie  for  Reformation.  Videnskabemes  Sel- 
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An  interesting  account  of  education  in  Denmark  before  the  Reformation.     Sur- 
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ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION. 

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Benthin,  W.  Th.,  and  Poulsen,  Cael.     Danmarks  Folkeskole,  1910.     Udgivet 
med  understottelse  av  Ministeriet  for  Kirke-  og  Undervisningsvsesenet,  af 
Danmarks  Laererforening.     Odense,  1911. 
Contains  a  directory  of  elementary  school  teachers 

Beretning  om  Det  Kobenhavnske  Borger-  og  Almueskolevaesens  Tilstand  for 
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Betaenkning  angaaende  Folkeskolens  Tilsyn  m.  m.  av  den  af  Ministeriet  for 
Kirke-  og  Undervisningsvsesenet  under  lite.  December,  1909,  nedsatte  Kom- 
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An  extended  discussion  of  present  status  of  elementary  school  supervision  in  Den- 
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A  criticism  of  the  rules  governing  discipline  In  the  public  schools  of  Copenhagen. 
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Udgivet  af  Statens  statistiske  Bureau.     Copenhagen,  1911. 
Oflacial  State  report  on  elementary  schools.     Published  annually. 

Knudsen,  K.  a.  Beretning  om  Statens  Kursus  i  Gyranastik  og  om  Gymnas- 
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Lehmann,  Henrik.  Haandbog  1  Lovgivningen  om  den  danske  Folkeskole. 
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An  excellent  presentation  of  the  legal  status  of  elementary  education  in  Denmark. 
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Danmarks  Laererhojskole  1856-1906.     Copenhagen,  1906. 

An  historical  sketch  of  the  State  teachers'  college. 
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The  fundamental  elementary  school  law  In  force  at  the  present  time. 


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A  discussion  of  the  experiment  in  cooperative  management  of  private  secondary 
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A  discussion  of  the  effect  of  recent  changes  and  movements  in  secondary  education. 

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A  contribution  to  the  current  discussion  relating  to  private  secondary  schools. 

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3334°— 15 12 


176  THE   DANISH    PEOPLE'S   HIGH   SCHOOL. 

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De  danske  Handelsskoler.  Fremstilling  av  deres  indretning  og  virksombed, 
udarbeidet  af  undervisningsinspektoren  for  de  statsunderstottede  bandels- 
skoler,  i  anledning  af  en  fra  udlandet  forekommen  foresporgsel.  Copen- 
hagen, 1906.     13  p. 

Plan  for  de  Handelsskoler  der  staar  under  Tilsyn  af  Provinshandelsforening- 
ernes  Fsellesudvalg  for  Skolevsesen,  1910.    Kolding,  1910. 

Steen,  Adolph.  Den  polytekniske  Laereanstalts  forste  Halvbundrede  Aar  1829- 
1879.     Copenbagen,  1879.     208  p. 

PEOPLE'S  HIGH   SCHOOLS. 

In  addition  to  tbe  following  references,  scattered  information  regarding 
people's  bigb  scbools  will  be  found  in  tbe  general  works  dealing  witb  education 
In  Denmark. 

AusTLiD,  Andreas.    Ein  Folkelaerar  (Kristen  Kold).    Copenbagen,  1911.    177  p. 

Begtrup,  Holger.    Et  Vindu  i  Vest.     (Ssertryk  af  "  Hoj skolebladet  "  1911.) 

A  plea  for  an  open  door  in  the  people's  high  school  for  influences  from  England 
and  America. 

Folkebojskolerne  i  Danmark,  1908.     [Pampblet] 


Folkebojskolens  Opgave.     [Pamphlet.] 

A   consideration   of   some   criticism    directed   against   the   work   of   people's   high 
schools. 

Beunn,  Kristoffer.     Folkelige  Grundtanker,  Hamar,  1878.    396  p. 

A  series  of  essays  dealing  with  fundamental  principles  in  popular  education,  with 
special  reference  to  the  work  of  people's  high  schools. 

Danmark.  Statens  Statiske  Bureau.  Danmarks  Statistik.  Danmarks 
Folkebojskoler  og  Landbrugsskoler  i  1906-11.     Copenbagen,  1907. 

Official  State  report  on  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools.     Published 
every  five  years. 

Det  kongelige  danske  Landbusholdningsselskab.  Aarsberetning  om  dets  Virk- 
sombed ,i  1910-1911.     Copenbagen,  1911. 

Has  some  information  of  interest  because  of  close  relation  between  people's  high 
schools  and  agricultural  practices. 

Dymond,  T.  S.,  comp.  Report  on  tbe  visit  of  tbe  Essex  farmers'  party  to  Den- 
mark, May  and  June,  1000.     Cbelmsford,  Eng.     (Out  of  print.) 

Egan,  Maurice  Francis.  Notes  on  agricultural  conditions  in  Denmark,  which 
served  as  a  basis  for  a  series  of  lectures  delivered  in  tbe  United  States, 
1913.  Washington,  Government  printing  office,  1913.  34  p.  (Senate  docu- 
ment no.  992.) 

ESKESEN,  Morten.     Samliv  med  Kold.    Christiania,  1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  177 

Fay,   C.  R.     CJooperation  at  home  and  abroad.    A  description  and  analysis. 
New  York  and  London,  1908.    403  p. 
Numerous  references  to  Denmark. 

The  first  people's  high  school  in  England. 

This  leaflet  may  be  had  from  Mr.  Francis  Hodgson,  89  Farringdon  St.,  London,  E.  C 

Gbundtvig,  N.  F.  S.    Academiet  i  Soer.     Copenhagen,  1838. 

Den  historiske  Hojskole.    Copenhagen,  1872. 

Skolen  for  Livet.     Copenhagen,  1838. 

Haggard,  H.  Rider.    Rural  Denmark  and  its  lessons.    London,  1911.    335  p. 
Devotes  some  attention  to  people's  high  schools  and  agricultural  schools. 

Hansen,  Fritz.     Om  Folkehojskolen  og  Almendannelsen.     Copenhagen,  1877. 

HoLLMAN,  A.  H.    Entwicklung  der  danischen  Landwirtschaft.     Berlin,  1900. 

Die  Danische  Volkshochschiile  und  ihre  Bedeutung  fiir  die  Entwicklung 

einer  volkischen  Kultur  in  Danemark.     1909.     Translated  into  Danish  by 
A.  Vedel.     Copenhagen,  1910.     160  p.     . 

An  excellent  treatment  of  the  educational  philosophy  and  methods  of  the  people's 
high-school  movement. 

HOLMSTROM,  Leonard.  Afhandling  om  Folkehojskolesagen.  Nordisk  Tidskrift. 
[1889.] 

Ireland.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction.  Report 
on  cooperative  agriculture  and  rural  conditions  in  Denmark.  Dublin,  1903. 
148  p.     (Miscellaneous  series.     Bulletin  no.  7.) 

This  excellent  report  of  a  deputation  sent  to  Denmark  devotes  much  attention  to 
the  work  of  the  people's  high  school  as  related  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country. 

LaCour,  Paul.  Foredrag,  holdt  paa  den  anden  nordiske  landbrugskongres  i 
Stockholm,  1897. 

A   discussion   of  method   in   teaching  science  and   mathematics   in   people's   high 
schools. 

. Katalog  over   den   Landbohistoriske   Udstilling   under   den   18   danske 

Landmandsforsamling  i  Odense  den  30,  Juni  8,  Juli,  1900.     Odense,  1900. 
133  p. 

Traces  statistically  the  growth  of  economic  prosperity  in  Denmark. 

Larsen,  H.  C.     Landokonomisk  Aarbog  for  1912.     Copenhagen,  1912. 
Statistical  information. 

Le  mouvement  cooperatif  en  Danemark  Public  H  I'occasion  du  congr&s 
international  des  associations  agricoles  et  de  demographic  rurale.  Copen- 
hagen and  Bruxelles,  1910. 

Nordahl-Petersen,  a.  Danmarks  Hojskoler  i  T-ekst  og  Billeder.  Ringe,  1908. 
447  p. 

Nygaard,  Fr.  Kristen  Kold,  Folkehojskolens  Banebryder.  2  vols.  Odense, 
1895-96. 

PouLSEN,  Alfred.  Hojskolen  og  Statistiken.  Hojskolebladet,  24  Mai,  1912. 
p.  729-736. 

A  contribution  to  a  current  discussion  regarding  status  of  people's  high  schools. 


The  Danish  popular  high  school.     A  lecture  delivered  in  Oxford,  August, 


1894.     Oxford  university  extension  gazette,  September,  1894. 
Also  printed  separately.     Odense,  1907.     19  p. 


178  THE  DANISH  PEOPLE ^S  HIGH   SCHOOL. 

RosENDAL,  H.     Danmarks  Folkehojskoler  og  Landbrugsskoler,  1844-1894.     Med- 
deleser  fra  Skolerne,  udgivne  af  Foreningen  for  Hojskoler  og  Landbrugs- 
skoler, i  Anledning  af  Halvliundredaars-Jubilaeet,  Odense,  1894.    177  p. 
Contains  statistical  summary  up  to  1894. 


Grundtvigs  Hojskole,  1856-1906.     Kolding,  1906. 


RoNBERG,   Madsen.     Grundtvig  und  die  danishen  Vollshochschulen.     Padago- 
gisches  Magazin.     pt.  253.     Langensalza,  1905.     VI-124  p. 

Rysgaard,  J.  M.    Agricultural  co-operation  in  Denmark.    A  paper  read  before 
the  Fortnightly  Club  of  Grand  Forks,  N.  D.     6  p. 

Sandstbom,  Anna.     Grundtvig  och  den  nordiske  folkhogskolen.     Tidsskriftet 
Verdandi,  1897.     Stockholm. 

Schroder,    Ludvig.     Den   Nordiske   Folkehojskole ;    Bidrag   til   dens   Historie. 
Copenhagen,  1905.    VI-487  p. 

The  most  complete  history  of  the  people's  high  school  movement. 

Den  Danske  Folkehojskole.    Et  brev  til  en  Engelsk  Laerer.    Copenhagen, 


1889.    32  p. 


N.  F.  S.  Grundtvigs  Levned.    Copenhagen,  1901.    223  p. 
Om  skoler  for  Voksne.    Copenhagen,  1878.     [Pamphlet.] 


Sellers,  Edith.  Testrup  peasant's  high  school.  Cornhill  magazine.  Reprinted 
in  American-Scandinavian,  Spokane,  Wash.,  October,  November,  and  De- 
cember, 1909. 

Sinclair,  John  F.    Agricultural  cooperation.     Wisconsin  state  board  of  public 
affairs,  Madison,  1912. 
Denmark,  p.  9-16. 
Advance  sheets. 

Smith, .    The  best  methods  of  organization  for  agricultural  cooperation 

and  credit.     In  Ireland.     Department  of  Agriculture   and  Technical   In- 
struction.    Dublin,  1903.     102  p.     (Miscellaneous  series.     Bulletin  6.) 

Stauri,    Rasmus.      Folkehogskulen   i    Danmark,    Norge,    Sverige   og    Finland. 

Christiania,  1910.    315  p. 
Thornton,   J.    S.     Recent  educational   progress  in   Denmark.     Great   Britain. 

Board  of  Education.    Special  reports  on  educational  subjects.    London,  1897. 

TOl.  1. 

People's  high  schools,  p.  592-600. 


Schools  public  and   private  in  the  North   of  Europe.     Great   Britain. 

Board   of   Education.     Special   reports   on  educational   subjects.     London, 
1907.    vol.  17. 

People's  high  schools,  p.  105-129. 

See  articles  in  Educational  Times  (London),  October,  1900,  and  November,  1905, 
Journal  of  Education   (London),  October,  1895. 

Warming,  Jens.  Staab  Hojskolen  Stille.  Hojskolebladet,  May,  1912. 
p.  633-636. 

A  discussion  of  the  present  status  of  the  people's  high  school  movement,  based  on 
the  latest  statistical  report. 

Washington,  Booker  T.  How  Denmark  has  taught  herself  prosperity  and 
happiness.  The  rural  high  schools  which  have  made  over  a  nation.  World's 
Work,  June,  1911,  p.  14486-94. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  179 

NORWAY. 

Anderson,  David  Allen.  The  school  system  of  Norway.  Boston,  Gorham 
press,  1913.    232  p. 

Bibliography  :  p.  225-228. 

The  first  reasonably  complete  account  in  English  of  education  in  Norway.  An 
illuminating  and  scholarly  presentation.  A  ratljpr  serious  omission,  however, 
is  the  total  absence  of  any  reference  to  the  work  of  the  county  and  people's 
high  schools,  (amtsskoler  and  folkehojskoler). 

Great  Britain.  Board  of  Education.  Special  reports  on  educational  subjects. 
London,  1902,  vol.  8,  p.  1-94 ;  1906,  vol.  16,  index ;  1907,  vol.  17,  p.  36-65. 

United  States.  Bureau  of  Education.  Circular  of  information,  July,  1871. 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  1889-90,  vol.  1,  475-517  p.; 
1896-97,  vol.  1,  103-123  p. 

SWEDEN. 

Education  in  Sweden.  Stockholm,  1909.  57  p.  Prepared  for  Alaska-Yukon- 
Pacific  Exposition,  1909. 

Great  Britain.  Board  of  Education.  Special  reports  on  educational  subjects. 
London,  1898,  vol.  3,  p.  649-671 ;  1902,  vol.  8,  p.  95-158. 

Johnson,  J.  V.    The  people's  high  schools  in  Sweden.     Orebro,  1904. 

SuNDBARG,  .  GusTAV,  ed.  Bducatiou  in  Sweden.  In  Sweden  and  its  people. 
Stockholm,  1904.    69  p. 

United  States.  Bureau  of  Education.  Circular  of  information,  July,  1871. 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1888-89,  vol.  1,  p.  197-221; 
1891-92,  vol.  1,  p.  423-^49;  1898-99,  vol.  1,  p.  237-257;  1904,  vol.  1,  p. 
767-797. 


INDEX. 


Administration  of  education,  19-29. 

Agricultural  education,  67-68, 95-97, 126-128. 

Agricultural  products,  statistics,  170-171. 

Arithmetic,  teaching,  peoples'  high  schools,  117. 

Askov,  advanced  courses,  119-120. 

Attendance,  school,  107-108. 

Bergman,  C.  A.,  on  the  peoples'  high  school,  146. 

Bibliography,  172-179. 

Bishops,  educational  duties,  24. 

Boards  of  education,  23,  25-27. 

Botanical  school  gardens,  41-42. 

Butter,  Danish,  excess  of  exports  over  imports,  170. 

Civil  divisions,  24-25. 

Claxton,  P.  P.,  letter  of  transmittal,  5. 

Colleges  and  universities,  64-68. 

Commercial  schools,  curriculum,  70-71. 

Commimal  secondary  schools,  63. 

Community  life  in  schools,  101-102. 

Compulsory  education,  29-30. 

Continuation  schools,  43-44. 

Cooperative  societies,  activities,  133-140. 

Copenhagen,  administration  of  schools,  28;  pay 
schools,  32-33;  time-tables  of  public  schools,  35-36. 

County  school  boards,  25. 

Coimty  school  council,  25. 

Curriculum,  agricultural  schools,  127;  commercial 
schools,  70-71;  elementary  schools,  39-40;  middla 
schools,  56-58;  normal  schools,  46-47;  peoples'  high 
schools,  115-128,  170;  secondary  schools,  56-60; 
university,  65.    See  also  under  special  subjects. 

Danish  education,  success,  154-165. 

Danish  language,  instruction,  37-38. 

Discipline.    See  School  discipline. 

District  school  board,  25-26. 

Domestic-science  schools,  69-70. 

Drawing,  teaching,  39,  118. 

Ecclesiastical  divisions,  statistics,  23-25. 

Economic  contribution,  peoples'  high  schools,  134. 

Educational  boards,  statistics,  23. 

Educational  system,  historical  development,  7-19. 

Elementary  education,  12-13,  29-53-  term  defined, 
19. 

England,  peoples'  high  schools,  150-152. 

Enlightenment  period,  15, 19. 

Equipment  for  schools,  41. 

Examinations,  elementary  schools,  42;  peoples'  high 
schools,  126;  secondary  schools,  60-61. 

Extension  work,  peoples'  high  schools,  128. 

Finland,  peoples'  high  schools,  148-149. 

Fircroft  School,  England,  150-152. 

Frederick  IV  (1699-1730),  contribution  to  educa- 
tion, 13-14. 

Free  meals,  elementary  schools  of  Copenhagen,  43. 

Geography,  home,  instruction,  38. 

German  language,  teaching,  40. 


Germany,  peoplej?'  high  schools,  149-150. 

Girls,  education  in  early  times,  9;  features  of  curric- 
ulum, peoples'  high  schools,  119;  secondary  edu- 
cation, 18-19. 

Grain,  shipments,  138. 

Groimds  and  buildings,  31. 

Grundtvig,  N.  F,  S.,  career  and  Influence,  73-84. 

Gymnasium,  19;  curriculum,  58-60. 

Gymnastics,  instruction,  40;  peoples'  high  schools, 
119. 

Half-time  schedule,  33-34. 

High  schools.    See  Peoples'  high  schools. 

Higher  education,  term  defined,  19. 

History,  teaching,  116-117,  121-122. 

Industrial  schools,  68-70. 

Kold,  Kristen,  career  and  influence,  88-93. 

La  Cour,  Paul,  on  method  of  teaching  science,  125. 

Latin  school,  divided  into  linguistic-historical  and 
mathematical-scientific,  17;  during  the  Reforma- 
tion, 10. 

Lecture  system,  peoples'  high  schools,  122. 

Lecturing  societies,  129-130. 

Libraries,  State-aided,  131. 

Local  civil  council,  26. 

Medical  inspection  of  schools,  Copenhagen,  43. 

Methods  of  instruction,  peoples'  high  schools, 
120-127. 

Middle  Ages,  education  during,  9-10. 

Middle  schools,  curriculum,  56-58. 

Ministry  of  education,  20-21. 

Naturalism,  influence  in  eighteenth  century,  15-16. 

Normal  schools,  46-^7,  110. 

Norway,  peoples'  high  schools,  142-145. 

Observational  instruction,  38. 

Old  Norse  education,  7-9. 

Organization  and  administration  of  education, 
19-29. 

Organization  of  elementary  schools,  33. 

Ownership  of  schools,  112-113. 

Pay  schools,  Copenhagen,  32. 

Peasant  proprietorship,  132-133. 

Pensions,  teachers.    See  Teachers,  pensions. 

Peoples'  high  schools,  growth,  84-99;  origin,  73-84. 

Pietism,  influence,  15-14. 

Polytechnic  Institute,  courses,  67. 

Private  elementary  schools,  44-45. 

Private  schools,  secondary,  sources  of  income,  63-64. 

Promotion,  elementary  schools,  43. 

Ranum  State  Normal  School,  curriculum,  46. 

Real  course,  weekly  program,  58. 

Reformation,  educational  plan,  10-12. 

Reforms,  recent,  16. 

Religious  education,  36, 141-142. 

Rodding,  first  peoples'  high  school,  85-87. 

Roskilde,  daily  program,  102-103. 

181 


182 


INDEX. 


Runic  inscriptions,  7. 

Salaries,  teachers.    See  Teachers'  salaries. 

Scholarships,  peoples'  high  schools,  108. 

School  buildings,  31. 

School  commission,  26-27. 

School  discipline,  34-35. 

School  districts,  30-31. 

School  funds,  county,  51-52. 

Schools,  distribution  on  basis  of  number  of  year 

students  (1910-11),  99-100. 
Sciences,  teaching,  117, 124-125. 
Secondary    education,    53-64;    girls,    18-19;    since 

Reformation,  16,  17-18;  support  of  State  schools, 

63;  term  defined,  19. 
Servant  girls'  school,  68-69. 
Singing,  teaching,  peoples'  high  schools,  118. 
Specialists,  displaced  in  elementary  schools,  40-41. 
State  system  of  schools,  establishment,  14-15. 
State  teachers'  college,  Copenhagen,  47. 


Student  associations,  66. 

Students,  peoples'  high  schools,  10^-108,  167-168. 

Sweden,  peoples'  high  schools,  145-148. 

Teachers,  108-111,  124,  168-170;  and  the  church,  48- 

49;  appointment,  47-48;  elementary  schools,  45; 

examination    and    certification,     47;    training, 

45-47,  61-63. 
Teachers'  associations,  111. 
Teachers'  councils.  27-28. 
Teachers'  pensions,  49-50,  63. 
Teachers'  salaries,  49,  61. 
Teachers'  training  school,  first  established,  16. 
Textbooks,  peoples'  high  schools,  126. 
Trade  schools,  68-69. 
United  States,  peoples'  high  schools,  152-154,  162, 

164. 
Universities,  organization  and  teaching  force,  64. 
Veterinary  and  Agricultural  College,  work,  67. 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 

[Note.— With  the  exceptions  indicated,  the  documents  named  below  will  be  sent  free  of  charge  upon 
application  to  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.  Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*) 
are  no  longer  available  for  free  distribution,  but  may  be  had  of  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  upon  payment  of  the  price  stated.  Remittances  should  be  made 
In  coin,  currency,  or  money  order.    Stamps  are  not  accepted.    Numbers  omitted  are  out  of  print.] 

1906. 

♦No.  3.  State  school  systems:  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public  education,  Oct.  1,  1904, 
to  Oct.  1, 1906.    Edward  C.  Elliott.    15  cts. 

1908. 

♦No.  6.  The  apprenticeship  system  in  its  relation  to  industrial  education.    Carroll  D.  Wright.    15  cts. 
No.  8.  Statistics  of  State  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  partially  supported  by 
the  State,  1907-8. 

1909. 

No.  2.  Admission  of  Chinese  students  to  American  colleges.    John  Fryer. 
♦No.  3.  Daily  meals  of  school  children.    Caroline  L.  Hunt.    10  cts. 
No.  5.  Statistics  of  public,  society,  and  school  libraries  in  1908. 
No.  7.  Index  to  the  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1867-1907. 
♦No.  8.  A  teacher's  professional  library.    Classified  list  of  100  titles.    5  cts. 
No.  10.  Education  for  efficiency  in  railroad  service.    J.  Shirley  Eaton. 

♦No.  11.  Statistics  of  State  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  partially  supported  by 
the  State,  1908-9.    5  cts. 

1910. 

No.  2.  State  school  systems:  III.  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public  education,  Oct.  1, 
190.S,  to  Oct.  1, 1909.    Edward  C.  Elliott. 
♦No.  5.  American  schooLhouses.    Fletcher  B.  Dresslar.    75  cts, 

1911. 

♦No.  1.  Bibliography  of  science  teaching.    5  cts. 

♦No.  3.  Agencies  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service.    William  C.  Ruediger.    15  cts. 

♦No.  4.  Report  of  the  commission  appointed  to  study  the  system  of  education  in  the  public  schools  of 

Baltimore.    10  cts. 
♦No.  5.  Age  and  grade  census  of  schools  and  colleges.    George  D.  Strayer.    10  cts. 
♦No.  6.  Graduate  work  in  mathematics  in  universities  and  in  other  institutions  of  like  grade  in  the  United 

States.    5  cts. 
No.  7.  Undergraduate  work  in  mathematics  in  colleges  and  universities. 
No.  9.  Mathematics  in  the  technological  schools  of  collegiate  grade  in  the  United  States. 
♦No.  13.  Mathematics  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  United  States.    15  cts. 
♦No.  14.  Provision  for  exceptional  children  in  the  public  schools.    J.  H.  Van  Sickle,  Lightner  Witmer, 

and  Leonard  P.  Ayres.    10  cts. 
♦No.  15.  Educational  system  of  China  as  recently  reconstructed.    Harry  E.  King.    10  cts. 
No.  19.  Statistics  of  State  tmiversities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  partially  supported  by 
the  State,  1910-11. 

1912. 

♦No.  1.  A  course  of  study  for  the  preparation  of  rural-school  teachers.    F.  Mutchler  and  W.  J.  Craig.    5  cts. 
♦No.  3.  Report  of  committee  on  vmiform  records  and  reports.    5  cts. 
♦No.  4.  Mathematics  in  technical  secondary  schools  in  the  United  States.    5  cts. 
♦No.  5.  A  study  of  expenses  of  city  school  systems.    Harlan  Updegraff.    10  cts. 
♦No.  6.  Agricultural  education  in  secondary  schools.    10  cts. 
♦No.  7.  Educational  status  of  nursing.    M.  Adelaide  Nutting,    10  cts. 
♦No.  9.  Coimtry  schools  for  city  boys.    William  S.  Myers.    10  cts. 
No.  11.  Current  educational  topics,  No.  I. 

*No.  13.  Influences  tending  to  improve  the  work  of  the  teacher  of  mathematics.    5  cts. 
♦No.  14.  Report  of  the  American  commissioners  of  the  international  commission  on  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics.   10  cts. 
♦No.  17.  The  Montessori  system  of  education.    Anna  T.  Smith.    5  cts. 

♦No.  18.  Teaching  language  through  agriculture  and  domestic  science.    M.  A.  Leiper.    5  cts. 
♦No.  19.  Professional  distribution  of  college  and  imiversity  graduates.    Bailey  B.  Burritt,    10  cts. 


II  BULLETIN    OF   THE   BUREAU    OF   EDUCATION. 

*No.  20.  Readjvistment  of  a  rural  high  school  to  the  needs  of  the  country.    H.  A.  Brown.    10  cts. 

*No.  22.  Public  and  private  high  schools.    25  cts. 

*No.  23.  Special  collections  in  libraries  in  the  United  States.    W.  D.  Johnston  and  I.  G.  Mudge.    10  cts. 

No.  26.  Bibliography  of  child  study  for  the  years  1910-11. 

No.  27.  History  of  public-school  education  in  Arkansas.    Stephen  B.  Weeks. 
♦No.  28.  Cultivating  school  grounds  in  Wake  Coimty,  N.  C.    Zebulon  Judd.    5  cts. 

No.  29.  Bibliography  of  the  teachmg  of  mathematics,  1900-1912.    D.  E.  Smith  and  Chas.  Goldziher. 

No.  30.  Latin-American  universities  and  special  schools.    Edgar  E.  Brandon. 

1913. 

No.  1.  Monthly  record  of  cxorrent  educational  publications,  January,  1913. 
♦No.  2.  Training  courses  for  rural  teachers.    A.  C.  Monahan  and  R.  H.  Wright.    5  cts. 
♦No.  3.  The  teaching  of  modern  languages  in  the  United  States.    Charles  H.  Handschin.    15  cts. 
♦No.  4.  Present  standards  of  higher  education  in  the  United  States.    George  E.  MacLean.    20  cts. 

No.  5.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  February,  1913. 
♦No.  6.  Agricultural  instruction  in  high  schools.    C.  H.  Robison  and  F.  B.  Jenks.    10  cts. 
♦No.  7.  College  entrance  requirements.    Clarence  D.  Kingsley.    15  cts. 
♦No.  8.  The  statvis  of  rural  education  in  the  United  States.    A.  C.  Monahan.    15  cts. 
♦No.  9.  Consular  reports  on  continuation  schools  in  Prussia.    5  cts. 

No.  11.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  April,  1913. 
♦No.  12.  The  promotion  of  peace.    Fannie  Fern  Andrews.    10  cts. 

♦No.  13.  Standards  and  tests  for  measuring  the  efficiency  of  schools  or  systems  of  schools.    5  cts. 
♦No.  14.  Agricultural  instruction  in  secondary  schools.    10  cts. 

No.  15.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  May,  1913. 
♦No.  16.  Bibliography  of  medical  inspection  and  health  supervision.    15  cts. 
♦No.  17.  A  trade  school  for  girls.    A  preliminary  investigation  in  a  typical  manufacturing  city,  Worcester, 

Mass.    10  cts. 
♦No.  18.  The  fifteenth  international  congress  on  hygiene  and  demography.    Fletcher  B.  Dresslar.    10  cts. 

No.  19.  German  industrial  education  and  its  lessons  for  the  United  States.    Holmes  Beckwith. 
♦No.  20.  Illiteracy  in  the  United  States.    10  cts. 

No.  21.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  June,  1913. 
♦No.  22.  Bibliography  of  industrial,  vocational,  and  trade  education.    10  cts. 
♦No.  23.  The  Georgia  club  at  the  State  Normal  School,  Athens,  Ga.,  for  the  study  of  rural  sociology.    E.  C. 

Branson.    10  cts. 
♦No.  24.  A  comparison  of  public  education  in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States.    Georg  Kerschensteiner. 

5  cts. 
♦No.  25.  Industrial  education  in  Colmnbus,  Ga.    Roland  B.  Daniel.    5  cts. 
♦No.  26.  Good  roads  arbor  day.    Susan  B.  Sipe.    10  cts. 

♦No.  28.  Expressions  on  education  by  American  statesmen  and  publicists.    5  cts. 
♦No.  29.  Accredited  secondary  schools  in  the  United  States.    Kendric  C.  Babcock.    10  cts. 
♦No.  30.  Education  in  the  South.    10  cts. 
♦No.  31.  Special  features  in  city  school  systems.    10  cts. 
♦No.  34.  Pension  systems  in  Great  Britain.    Raymond  W.  Sies.    10  cts. 
♦No.  35.  A  list  of  books  suited  to  a  high-school  library.    15  cts. 
♦No.  36.  Report  on  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  the  natives  of  Alaska,  1911-12.    10  cts. 

No.  37.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  October,  1913. 
♦No.  38.  Economy  of  time  in  education.    10  cts. 
♦No.  40.  The  reorganized  school  playground.    Henry  S.  Curtis.    10  cts. 
♦No.  41.  The  reorganization  of  secondary  education.    10  cts. 

♦No.  42.  An  experimental  rural  school  at  Winthrop  College.    H.  S.  Browne.    10  cts. 
♦No.  43.  Agriculture  and  rural-life  day;  material  for  its  observance.    Eugene  C.  Brooks.    10  cts. 
♦No.  44.  Organized  health  work  in  schools.    E.  B.  Hoag.    10  cts. 

No.  45.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  November,  1913. 
♦No.  46.  Educational  directory,  1913.    15  cts. 

♦No.  47.  Teaching  material  in  Government  publications.    F.  K.  Noyes.    10  cts. 
♦No.  48.  School  hygiene.    W.  Carson  Ryan,  jr.    15  cts. 

No.  49.  The  Farragut  School,  a  Tennessee  country-life  high  school.    A.  C.  Monahan  and  Adams  Phillips. 
♦No.  50.  The  Fitchburg  plan  of  cooperative  industrial  education.    M.  R.  McCann.    10  cts. 
♦No.  51.  Education  of  the  immigrant.    10  cts. 
♦No.  52.  Sanitary  schoolhouses.    Legal  requirements  in  Indiana  and  Ohio.    5  cts. 

No.  53.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  December,  1913. 

No.  54.  Consular  reports  on  industrial  education  in  Germany. 

No.  55.  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  education,  Oct.  1, 1909,  to  Oct.  1, 1912.    James  C. 
Boykin  and  William  R.  Hood. 

No.  58.  Educational  system  of  rural  Denmark.    Harold  W.  Foght. 

No.  59.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1910-11. 

No.  60.  Statistics  of  State  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  partially  supported  by 
the  State,  1912-13. 


BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF   EDUCATION.  Ill 

1914. 

No.  2.  Compulsory  school  attendance. 

No.  3.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  February,  1914. 

No.  4.  The  school  and  the  start  in  life.    Meyer  Bloomfield. 

No.  5.  The  folk  high  schools  of  Denmark.    L.  L.  Friend. 

No.  6.  Kindergartens  in  the  United  States. 

No.  7.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  March,  1914. 

*No.  8.  The  Massachusetts  home-project  plan  of  vocational  agricultural  education.    R.  W.  Stimsou. 
15  cts. 

No.  9.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  April,  1914. 

No.  10.  Physical  growth  and  school  progress.    B.  T.  Baldwin. 
*No.  11.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications.  May,  1914.    6  cts. 

No.  12.  Rural  schoolhouses  and  grounds.    F.  B.  Dresslar. 

No.  13.  Present  status  of  drawing  and  art  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States. 
Royal  B.  Famum. 

No.  14.  Vocational  guidance. 

No.  15.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications.    Index. 

No.  16.  The  tangible  rewards  of  teaching.    James  C.  Boykin  and  Robprta  King. 

No.  17.  Sanitary  survey  of  the  schools  of  Orange  County,  Va.    Roy  K.  Flannagan. 

No.  18.  The  public  school  system  of  Gary,  Ind.    William  P.  Burris. 

No.  19.  University  extension  in  the  United  States.    Louis  E.  Reber. 

No.  20.  The  rural  school  and  hookworm  disease.    J.  A.  Ferrell. 

No.  21.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  pubUcations,  September,  1914. 

No.  22.  The  Danish  folk  high  schools.    H.  W.  Foght. 

No.  23.  Some  trade  schools  in  Europe.    Frank  L.  Glynn. 

No.  24.  Danish  elementary  rural  schools.    H.  W.  Foght. 

No.  25.  Important  features  in  rural  school  improvement.    W.  T.  Hodges. 

No.  26.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  October,  1914. 
*No.  27.  Agricultural  teaching.    15  cts. 

No.  28.  The  Montessori  method  and  the  kindergarten.    Elizabeth  Harrison. 

No.  29.  The  kindergarten  in  benevolent  institutions. 
♦No.  30.  Consolidation  of  rural  schools  and  transportation  of  pupils  at  public  expense.    A.  C.  Monahan. 

25  cts. 
*No.  31.  Report  on  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  the  natives  of  Alaska.    25  cts. 

No.  32.  Bibliography  of  the  relation  of  secondary  schools  to  higher  education.    R .  L.  Walkley. 

No.  33.  Music  in  the  public  schools.    Will  Earhart. 

No.  34.  Library  instruction  in  universities,  colleges,  and  normal  schools.    Henry  R.  Evans. 

No.  35.  The  training  of  teachers  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Germany.    Charles  H.  Judd. 
*No.  36.  Education  for  the  home— Part  I.    General  statement.    B.R.Andrews.    10  cts. 
*No.  37.  Education  for  the  home— Part  II.    State  legislation,  schools,  agencies.    B.  R.  Andrews.    30  cts. 

No.  38.  Education  for  the  home— Part  III.    Colleges  and  universities.    Benjamin  R.  Andrews. 
♦No.  39.  Education  for  the  home— Part  IV.    Bibliography,  list  of  schools.    Benjamin  R.  Andrews. 
10  cts. 

No.  40.  Care  of  the  health  of  boys  in  Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

No.  41.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  November,  1914. 

No.  42.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  December,  1914. 

No.  43.  Educational  directory,  1914-15. 

No.  44.  County-unit  organization  for  the  administration  of  rural  schools.    A.  C.  Monahan. 

No.  45.  Curricula  in  mathematics.    J.  C.  Brown. 

No.  46.  School  savings  banks.    Mrs.  Sara  L.  Oberholtzer. 

No.  47.  City  training  schools  for  teachers.    Frank  A.  Manny. 

No.  48.  The  educational  museum  of  the  St.  Louis  public  schools.    C.  G.  Rathman. 

No.  49.  Efficiency  and  preparation  of  rural-school  teachers.    H.  W.  Foght. 

No.  50.  Statistics  of  State  universities  and  State  colleges. 

1915. 

♦No.  1.  Cooking  in  the  vocational  school.    Iris  P.  O'Leary.    5  cts. 
No.  2.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  January,  1915. 
No.  3.  Monthly  record  of  cm-rent  educational  publications,  February,  1915. 
No.  4.  The  health  of  school  children.    W .  H.  Heck. 
No.  5.  Organization  of  State  departments  of  education.    A.  C.  Monahan. 
No.  6.  A  study  of  the  colleges  and  high  schools  in  the  North  Central  Association. 
No.  7.  Accredited  secondary  schools  in  the  United  States.    Samuel  P.  Capen. 
No.  8.  Present  status  of  the  honor  system  in  colleges  and  universities.    Bird  T.  Baldwin. 
No.  9.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  March,  1915. 
No.  10.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  April,  1915. 

No.  11.  A  statistical  study  of  the  public-school  systems  of  the  southern  Appalachian  Mountains. 
Norman  Frost. 


IV  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU   OF   EDUCATION. 

No.  12.  History  of  public-school  education  in  Alabama.    Stephen  B.  Weeks. 

No.  13.  The  schoolhouse  as  the  polling  place.    E.  J.  Ward. 

No.  14.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  May,  1915. 

No.  15.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications.    Index,  February,  1914-January,  1915. 

No.  16.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  June,  1915. 

No.  17.  Civic  education  in  elementary  schools  as  illustrated  in  Indianapolis.    A.  W.  Dunn. 

No.  18.  Legal  education  in  Great  Britain.    H.  S.  Richards. 

No.  19.  Statistics  of  agricultural,  manual  training,  and  industrial  schools,  1913-14. 

No.  20.  The  rural  school  system  of  Minnesota.    H.  W.  Foght. 

No.  21.  Schoolhouse  sanitation.    "William  A.  Cook. 

No.  22.  State  versus  local  control  of  elementary  education.    T.  L.  MacDowell. 

No.  23.  The  teaching  of  community  civics. 

No.  24.  Adjustment  between  kindergarten  and  first  grade.    Luella  A.  Palmer. 

No.  25.  Public,  society,  and  school  libraries. 

No.  26.  Secondary  schools  in  the  States  of  Central  America,  South  America,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Anna  T.  Smith. 
No.  27.  Opportunities  for  foreign  students  at  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States.    Samuel  P. 

Capen. 
No.  28.  The  extension  of  public  education.    Clarence  A.  Perry. 
No.  29.  The  truant  problem  and  the  parental  school.    James  S.  Hiatt. 
No.  30.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1911-12. 
No.  31.  A  comparative  study  of  the  salaries  of  teachers  and  officers. 
No.  32.  The  school  system  of  Ontario.    H.  W.  Foght. 
No.  33.  Problems  of  vocational  education  in  Germany.    George  E.  Myers. 
*No.  34.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  September,  1915.    5  cts. 
No.  35.  Mathematics  in  the  lower  and  middle  commercial  and  industrial  schools.    E.  H.  Taylor. 
No.  36.  Free  textbooks  and  State  uniformity.    A.  C.  Monahan. 
No.  37.  Some  foreign  educational  surveys.    James  Mahoney. 
No.  38.  The  university  and  the  municipality. 

No.  39.  The  training  of  elementary  school  teachers  in  mathematics.    I.  L,  Kandel. 
No.  40.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  October,  1915. 
No.  41,  Significant  school  extension  records.    Clarence  A.  Perry. 
No.  42.  Advancement  of  the  teacher  with  the  class.    James  Mahoney. 
No.  43.  Educational  directory,  1915-16. 

No.  44.  School  administration  in  the  smaller  cities.    W.  S.  Deflenbaugh. 
No.  45.  The  Danish  people's  high  school.    Martin  Hegland. 
No.  46.  Monthly  record  of  current  educational  publications,  November,  1915. 

O 


VITA 

Martin  Hegland,  the  author  of  this  work,  was  born  at 
Merton,  Minnesota,  Jan.  20,  1880.  In  1900  he  graduated  from 
the  high  school  at  Owatonna,  Minnesota,  and  in  1904  from  St. 
Olaf  College,  Northfield,  Minnesota,  with  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts.  From  1904  to  1907  he  served  as  superintendent  of  the 
public  schools  at  Fertile,  Minnesota.  In  1907-8  he  studied 
English  philology,  education,  and  philosophy  at  the  University 
of  Minnesota  and  received  from  that  institution  the  degree  of 
Master  of  Arts.  After  three  years  of  study  he  graduated  in 
1910  from  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  United  Norwegian 
Lutheran  Church  in  St.  Paul,  Minnesota.  As  recipient  of  the 
St.  Olaf  College  Alumni  scholarship  in  1910,  he  entered  upon 
graduate  study  in  education  and  sociology  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, New  York.  With  educational  administration  as  his  major 
field  he  spent  three  semesters  in  resident  study  chiefly  in 
Teachers  College.  For  the  school  year  1911-12  he  received 
from  Teachers  College  a  Graduate  Scholarship  and  a  Foreign 
Research  Scholarship.  The  second  semester  of  1911-12  he  spent 
in  the  study  of  education  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway, 
gaining  first  hand  information  and  gathering  materials  for  the 
present  work. 


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